Morphological reduplication in Jordanian Arabic: form and function

Figures & data

Table 1. Repetition of a semantically-empty unit.

Reduplicant Meaning
kamkam	hid, covered his mouth
tˁartˁar	kept moving from one place to another
barbar	chattered, gossiped produced mucus
Rabrab	became fat
raʕraʕ	bloomed
Waswas	whispered bad thought
θarθar	chattered
Daldal	hanged down
bagbag /baʔbaʔ	when the wall is affected by the humidity and started to peel the sound that results from boiling the water. shouted nonsense (figurative meaning)
waʃwaʃ	whispered
daɣdaɣ	Tickled
Tamtam	muttered: said something in a low or barely audible voice
Hashas	had senility, mental disorder, or madness. (Usually used to mock someone. So, the disorder is unreal)
Basbas	became very soft and easy to shape (used usually with dough). called the cat (to say bisbis to the cat as a way of calling it).
Zalzal	shook, trembled
sˁaksˁak	Chilled
ðabðab	acted like a hypocrite.
zagzag/zaʔzaʔ	became naked creaked
dʒaʕdʒaʕ	shouted and spoke in a loud voice during anger
sˁaħsˁaħ	became very alert
xaʃxaʃ	rattled
Walwal	screamed and complained about something at the same time usually with weeping.
laglag/laʔlaʔ	talked intensively and repeatedly
Karkar	tickled
Taktak	organized perfectly.
ʃagʃag/ ʃaʔʃaʔ	visited repeatedly for a short period of time
baʕbaʕ	Spoke nonsense loudly with anger
nahnah	exhausted
naħnaħ	cleared his throat

The reduplicants ‘bagbag,’ ‘zagzag,’ ‘laglag,’ and ‘ʃagʃag’ belong to the Rural variety, and have the equivalents ‘baʔbaʔ,’ ‘zaʔzaʔ,’ ‘laʔlaʔ’, and ‘ʃaʔʃaʔ’ in the Urban variety.¹.

Table 2. Intensity-expressing reduplicants.

Reduplicants	Meaning	Source category
dabdab	gained weight and become like a bear. walking heavily because of weight.	derived from the noun ‘dob’ (a bear) or the verb ‘dabb’ (causing noise while walking because of weight)
dasdas	kept participating or intervening in every event or situation.	the bilateral verb ‘dass’ (to insert something)
fadˁfadˁ	released and told what was bothering you	the bilateral verb ‘fadˁdˁ (to release or to kick up something)
ratˁratˁ	shook intensely or moved in wobbly or jelly-like way	the bilateral, colloquial verb ‘ratˁ’ (to move in jelly-like way)
ʕalʕal	bothered others severely through procrastination or by causing harm	the bilateral verb ‘ ʕall’ (to make someone sick)
faħfaħ	spread or diffused intensively, typically used with smells and fragrances	the trilateral verb ‘ fwħ’ (to spread)
marmar	caused an intense bitter taste kept procrastinating with someone to a very annoying level	the bilateral verb ‘marr’ (to give a bitter taste)
ħalħal	spread gradually in an intensive and notable way	the bilateral verb ‘hall’ (to dissolve)
ħatˁħatˁ	was in a very missy situation, where everything is unorganized and thrown on the ground	the bilateral verb ‘ħatˁtˁ’ (to put)
ʃaʕʃaʕ	shined intensively	the verb ʃaʕʕ (to shine).
balbal	intensively wet something	the verb ‘ball’ (to make something wet)
ɣalɣal	penetrated and merged with the ingredients of something.	the verb ‘ɣall ‘ (to insert).

Table 3. State or mood-conveying reduplicants.

Reduplicants	Meaning	Examples
maxmax	focused on something as if he put his brain in it. became in a state of joyful relaxation or enjoyment	gaʕid b-maxmix ʕala ʔil-liktab (I am focusing on the book) minna nitˁlaʕ intˁiʃ win-maxmix (we want to go out and enjoy).
ʃabʃab	attempted to act youthfully	ʔil-ħadʒi gaʕid bit-ʃabʃab (the old man is trying to become young)
matmat	performed tasks very slowly, as if he were in a state of death	daajman b-tdˁallii tt-matmat-ii w intii btidʒlii (you always clean the dishes very slowly).
malmal	was in a state of boredom or did things boringly.	la tdˁalli tt-malmalii (do not keep complaining about boredom).
ʔafʔaf	said the interjection ‘uff’ as a way of nagging and expressing annoyance.	la tdˁal tt-ʔafʔaf ʔind widʒhii (do not keep saying ‘uuf’ in front of my face).
ħatˁħatˁ	was in a very missy situation, where everything is unorganized and thrown on the ground	laa tdˁal ʔil-daar im-ħatˁħatˁa hiik (do not let the house missy like this). maalkum hiik m-ħatˁħatˁiin! (why are you missy like this !)
kankan	talked secretly with someone especially your lover.	ʃuu bit-kankin bil-talifuun! (so you are talking secretly on the phone!)
zahzah	experienced elation, euphoria, or a high sense of relaxation.	iʕmalli ʔrgiilih xallina in-zahzih (prepare Argeelah for me and let us enjoy and feel high). zahzah-it min hada ildawaa (I felt a high sense of relaxation because of this medicine)

Table 4. Reduplicants combining repetition and intensity.

Reduplicants	Root Meaning	Examples
tˁaltˁal	tˁall (looked at)	maalak bi-tˁtˁaltˁil ʕaliina? (why do you keep looking at us?)
masˁmasˁ	masˁsˁ (sucked)	biddi ʔʕmallak ʔklih it-masˁmisˁ asˁaabʕak waraaha (I will make you a meal that you will suck your fingers after eating it).
hazhaz	hazz (shook)	laa tdˁal it-hazhiz bridʒliik. (do not keep shaking your legs).
radʒradʒ	radʒdʒ (shook)	ʔidiik bi-radʒridʒu kθiir (your hands are shaking intensively).
ʃamʃam	ʃamm (sniffed)	liiʃ bitdˁal it-ʃamʃim bil-ʔwaaʕi? (why do you keep sniffing the clothes?).
taftaf	taff (spit)	la itxalli ʔil-walad ij-taftif ʔlaa ħada (do not let the boy spit on others).
basˁbasˁ	basˁsˁ (looked at)	haada ʔil-zalamih bijdˁal ij-basˁbisˁ ʕala ʔil-banaat (this man keeps looking at girls).
habhab	habb (blew)	fii riiħa ħilwa bit-habhib (there is a good smell that keeps blowing).
gaħgaħ/ ʔaħʔaħ	qaħħ (coughed).	sˁurt ʔ-qaħqiħ min riiħit ʔidduxaan. (I am coughing because of the smoke).
tˁaxtˁax	tˁaxx (shot)	ʔil-dʒiiraan tˁaxtˁax-uu bil-ʕurs (the neighbors shot many times in the wedding).
ʕadˁʕadˁ	ʕadˁdˁ (bited)	ʔil-walad bi-ʕadˁʕidˁ bil-lahaayih. (the boy is biting the pacifier).
tˁantˁan	tˁann (buzzed)	iðnii bit-tˁantˁin min ʔil- sˁubiħ. (my ear has been buzzing since morning).
rasˁrasˁ	rasˁsˁ (stacked or compacted something)	rasˁrasˁ-t ʔi-zzaitoun bil-martabaan (I compacted the olive in the container).
fasˁfasˁ	fasˁsˁ (divided or separated/ examined something minutely).	gaʕdih bit-fasˁfisˁ bizir (she is dividing the seeds) biddi ʔ-fasˁfisˁ ʔil-madih fasˁfasˁh (I am going to examine the material carefully).
laflaf	laff (rotated)	hada ʔi-ssajig bi-dˁal ij-laflif bil-balad (this driver keeps moving around in the town). raħ ʔatʔaxar liʔani biddi ʔlaflif bis.suug (I’ll be late because I want to check out the markets)
tˁagtˁag/ tˁaʔtˁaʔ	tˁaqq (knocked)	laa itdˁal it- tˁaqtˁiq minnaa niʕrif innam (do not keep knocking because we want to sleep).
ħakħak	ħakk (scratched)	liiʃ bit-ħakħik hiik (why are you scratching this much)
dandan	dann (sang in a very low voice)	ʔzʕadʒitnii w enta et-dandin (you bothered me while you were humming).
sabsab	sabb (insulted)	bit-dˁal it-sabsib ʕalaai (you keep insulting me).

Table 5. Reduplicants that express violence.

Reduplicants	Root Meaning	Examples
dʒardʒar	dʒarr (dragged).	walla lʔa-dʒardʒir-ak bil-maħaakim. (I swear I will drag you into courts).
fatfat	fatt (tore up).	liiʃ hiik im-fatfit ʔil-xubiz ʕla ʔil-ʔrdˁ! (Why did you tear up the bread on the ground this way!) .
hadhad	hadd (broke down, destroyed).	ʔil-ʃuɣul hadhad ħe:lii. (the work broke down my ability).
hazhaz	hazz (shook).	hazhaz θiqat ʔil-walad bi-nafsuh (he shook the boy’s self-confidence).
ʃagʃag / ʃaʔʃaʔ	ʃagg/ʃaqq (to tore up)	ʔil-iktaab it-ʃagʃag (the book tore up).
tˁagtˁag/ tˁaʔtˁaʔ	tˁagg/ tˁaqq (knocked, cracked).	wallah lʔa-tˁagtˁig iʕdˁaamak. (I swear I will crack your bones).
dagdag/daʔdaʔ	dagg/daqq (knocked).	miin bi-dagdig fuug ruusna? (Who is knocking above our heads?) .

Table 6. Reduplicants signifying repetition, speed, and continuity.

Reduplicants	Root meaning	Speed	Examples
rafraf	raff /rafraf (flapped)	quickness	ʔi-tˁtˁiir bi-rafrif bi-dʒinħaanuh (the bird is flapping its wings).
kaʃ kaʃ	kaʃʃ /kaʃkaʃ (fired) (expel)	Quickness	kaʃkaʃ-it ʔil-ħamaam (I was firing the pigeon ‘causing them to fly away’)
ʃamʃam	ʃamm (smelled)	slowness	ʃamʃam-it kul ʔil- ʔwaʕii. (I smelled all the clothes).
lamlam	lamm (gathered)	slowness	lamlam-it kul ʔil-warag. (I gathered all the papers).
fakfak	fakk (untied)	slowness	tˁuul ʔil-juum wʔana ʔ-fakfik bil-baradi.(I spent all the day untying the curtains).
baxbax	baxx (sprayed)	slowness	baxbax ʔil-ʕutˁir (he sprayed the perfume).
dˁabdˁab	dˁabb (hid)	slowness	kunt ʔ-dˁabdˁib bil- ʔwaʕii.(I was packing the clothes).
ʃarʃar	ʃarr (dropped, flowed)	slowness	kaasak bi- ʃarʃir. (your mug is dripping). ʔil ħanafijjih bit-ʃarʃir. (the faucet is dripping).
harhar	harr (fell, dropped)	slowness	sandwiiʃtak harhar-at ʕala ʔil-ʔrdˁ. (your sandwich is falling on the ground).
kabkab	kabb (fell, dropped or threw)	slowness	laa itkabkib bizir ʕala ʔil-ʔrdˁ. (do not drop the seeds on the ground).
mazmaz	mazz/mazmaz (drank or ate little by little.)	slowness	gaʕid ba-mazmiz ʕala ʔil-ʕasˁiir. (I am drinking the juice little by little).
hazhaz	hazz (shook)	slowness	hazhazat lal-walad ħatta naam. (I shook the boy until he slept).
madmad	madd (stretched)	slowness	ʔil-daaljih btit-madmad ʕala ʔil-imʕarraʃ. (the grape tree is stretching on the throne).
nagnag/naʔnaʔ	nagg/naqq (pecked)	slowness	bi-nagnig bil-ʕakil nagnagah. (he is pecking the food). nagnagat ʔil-ʔkil zajj ʔil-dʒadʒih. (she pecked the food like a chicken).
raʃraʃ	raʃʃ (sprayed or sprinkled)	slowness	ʔi-ddinja bit- raʃriʃ. (it is drizzling). gaaʕid bi-raʃriʃ ʕutˁur. (he is spraying perfume).