The Nexus between livelihood diversification and farmland management strategies in rural Ethiopia

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of Gozamin District.

Table 1. Descriptive summary statistics of sustainable land management

Variable	Description	Mean	Standard deviation (SD)
FALLOW	Dummy land management, 1 if there is fallow; 0 otherwise	0.549	0.499
MANU&COMPO	Dummy land management, 1 if manure and compost; 0 otherwise	0.629	0.484
TERRACE	Dummy land management, 1 if terrace; 0 otherwise	0.437	0.497
SOIL_BUND	Dummy land management, 1 if soil-bund; 0 otherwise	0.516	0.501
GULLY_CHECK	Dummy land management, 1 if gully check; 0 otherwise	0.490	0.502
TREE_PLANT	Dummy land management, 1 if tree-planted; 0 otherwise	0.503	0.504
SHELTERBELT	Dummy land management, 1 if shelter-belt; 0 otherwise	0.562	0.497
STRIP_CROP	Dummy land management, 1 if strip-cropping; 0 otherwise	0.496	0.501

Table 2. Descriptive summary statistics of sample farm households

Variable	Description	Mean	Standard deviation (SD)
HHSEX	Dummy of gender, 1 if male; 0 otherwise	0.72	0.45
HHAGE	Age of the farm household head	44.36	12.39
NOFORMAL_EDU	Dummy of education, 1 if no formal education	0.68	0.47
ELEM_EDUC	Dummy education, 1 if elementary education	0.20	0.40
SECON_EDUC	Dummy education, 1 if secondary education	0.11	0.32
STUD_PROP	Proportion of students in the household	0.35	0.24
MRKT_DIS	Distance of home from the nearest market (km)	16.73	1.56
LAND_HA	Land size owned by the household	1.16	0.45
LABOR	Number of labour (between age of 15 and 65)	2.40	0.76
LAND_RIGHT	Dummy, 1 if a household secured for his land	0.89	0.30
COOP_MEM	Dummy, 1 if a household is a member of the cooperative	0.64	0.47
CREDIT_SERV	Dummy, 1 if a household has access to credit	0.49	0.50
EXTEN_SERV	Dummy, 1 if household participated in agri-extension	0.72	0.44
WAGE	Wage of labour (Annual wage)	4,663	1,398
CROPY	On-farm income	20,177	9,798.9
OFFARMY	Off-farm income	1,235	1,355
NONFARMY	Non-farm income	1,971	2,519
TOTAL_INCO	Total income	23371	11191
VILL_LEQLEQ	Location dummy, 1 if Leqleqit	0.33	0.47
VILL_WEYNMA	Location dummy, 1 if Weynmager	0.33	0.47
VILL_ADDISGULT	Location dummy, 1 if Addis-gulit	0.33	0.47
IHHD_INDEX*

$$IHHD\_INDE{X}^{*}=\frac{1}{{\left(\text{on-farm income}/\text{total income}\right)}^2}+\frac{1}{{\left(\text{non-farm income}/\text{total income}\right)}^2}+\frac{1}{{\left(\text{off-farm income}/\text{total income}\right)}^2}$$

Table 3. Two-limit Tobit estimation of sustainable farmland management index

SLM_INDEX	COEFFICIENTS		MARGINAL EFFECTS (DY/DX)
HHSEX	0.022(0.047)		0.016(0.044)
LNHHAGE	−0.045(00.087)		−0.042(0.082)
LNMRKT_DIS	−0.019(0.443)		−0.087(0.419)
LAND_HA	0.015(0.049)		0.014(0.047)
LAND_RIGHT	0.009(0.077)		0.010(0.073)
COOP_MEM	0.159***(0.053)		0.156***(0.050)
CREDIT_SERV	−0.035(0.044)		−0.036(0.041)
EXTEN_SERV	0.364***(0.068)		0.352***(0.064)
LABOR	0.014(0.027)		0.011 (.025)
LNAGRI_TECH	0.038(0.037)		0.034(0.035)
LNWAGE	0.231**(.122)		0.227*(0.120)
ELEM_EDUC	−0.109**(0.054)		−0.105**(0.051)
SECON_EDUC	0.066(0.068)		0.061(0.064)
VILL_LEQLEQ	−0.082(0.108)		−0.088(0.102)
VILL_WEYNMA	0.006(0.082)		−0.001(0.077)
IHHD_INDEX	0.592***(.062)		0.569***(0.057)
_CONS	−2.408 (10.714)		-
σ	0.2210637	0.015856	0.189699	0.2524283
Observation summary	37 left-censored observations at slm_index ≤ 0
	107 uncensored observations
	4 right-censored observations at slm_index ≥ 1
Log likelihood =	Number of Observations		=148
	LR χ^2(16)		=196.95
	Prob. > χ^2		=0.0000
	−14.609788  Pseudo R^2		=0.8708

Notes: Standard errors are in parentheses.

For dummy variables, dy/dx denotes a change from 0 to 1. Addisgult is used as the reference village and household head having no formal education is used as the reference for educational level.

* Statistical level of significance at 10%.

** Statistical level of significance at 5%.

*** Statistical level of significance at 1%.

Table

Variable	Fallow	Manu& Compost	Terrace	Soil_bund	Gully_check	Tree_plant	Shelterbelt	Strip_crop
HHSEX	−0.179	0.628*	0.057	−0.102	0.104	−0.193	−0.188	0.749**
	(0.260)	(0.332)	(0.291)	(0.286)	(0.286)	(0.260)	(0.309)	(0.328)
LNHHAGE	−0.667	−0.321	0.481	−0.097	−0.096	−0.119	−0.243	−1.274**
	(0.486)	(0.620)	(0.518)	(0.510)	(0.572)	(0.444)	(0.453)	(0.559)
ELEM_EDUC	−0.096	−0.601**	−0.297	−0.096	0.613**	−0.468*	−0.315	−1.065***
	(0.329)	(0.304)	(0.340)	(0.308)	(0.275)	(0.277)	(0.344)	(0.375)
SECON_EDUC	0.264	0.297	0.023	0.633	0.342	−0.135	1.030**	−0.780*
	(0.511)	(0.453)	(0.369)	(0.465)	(0.490)	(0.380)	(0.368)	(0.460)
LNMRKT_DIS	−3.692	−0.578	6.260**	−2.290	−1.045	−2.156	−0.730	1.459
	(2.595)	(2.944)	(2.708)	(2.686)	(2.944)	(2.421)	(2.718)	(3.084)
LAND_HA	−0.093	−0.201	0.110	0.317	0.046	0.385	0.294	−0.054
	(0.288)	(0.360)	(0.294)	(0.282)	(0.328)	(0.262)	(0.288)	(0.318)
LAND_RIGHT	0.061	−0.088	0.583	−0.521	−0.208	−0.062	−0.015	0.290
	(0.365)	(0.411)	(0.499)	(0.425)	(0.391)	(0.455)	(0.514)	(0.544)
COOP_MEM	0.201	0.600*	0.799**	0.572*	−0.073	0.224	0.515	0.565*
	(0.332)	(0.346)	(0.340)	(0.335)	(0.323)	(0.311)	(0.332)	(0.372)
CREDIT_SERV	−0.162	−0.050	−0.151	−0.219	0.368	−0.264	−0.236	0.573***
	(0.256)	(0.266)	(0.284)	(0.262)	(0.284)	(0.240)	(0.283)	(0.313)
AGRI_EXTEN	0.928**	1.158**	1.082**	0.256	1.610***	1.089***	0.628	1.395***
	(0.460)	(0.473)	(0.458)	(0.399)	(0.449)	(0.395)	(0.432)	(0.461)
LABOR	0.244*	0.189	0.037	−0.047	−0.108	−0.042	−0.020	−0.068
	(0.143)	(0.137)	(0.142)	(0.157)	(0.200)	(0.139)	(0.138)	(0.148)
LNAGRI_TECH	0.171	0.197	0.257	−0.229	0.198	−0.154	0.186	−0.134
	(0.224)	(0.274)	(0.166)	(0.224)	(0.248)	(0.272)	(0.278)	(0.238)
LNWAGE	0.651	−0.065	1.491**	1.686**	0.003	0.005	0.066	1.678**
	(0.748)	(0.815)	(0.740)	(0.748)	(0.733)	(0.723)	(0.692)	(0.760)
VILL_LEQLEQ	−1.293**	−0.064	0.272	−1.190*	−0.866	0.031	0.172	0.606
	(0.638)	(0.607)	(0.618)	(0.618)	(0.718)	(0.630)	(0.649)	(0.703)
VILL_WEYNMA	−0.197	−0.483	0.702	−0.565	−0.155	−0.133	0.037	0.140
	(0.479)	(0.505)	(0.505)	(0.499)	(0.543)	(0.469)	(0.520)	(0.551)
IHHD_INDEX	1.524***	1.796***	1.678 ***	1.672***	2.058***	1.109***	1.786***	1.598***
	(0.392)	(0.399)	(0.454)	(0.420)	(0.453)	(0.344)	(0.373)	(0.359)
CONSTANT	4.241	−0.867	−38.117***	−6.486	−1.053	5.899	−1.324	−16.014
	(10.197)	(11.791)	(12.005)	(10.812)	(10.694)	(9.095)	(10.397)	(11.767)
			χ^2(28)			64.0813
			Prob. > χ^2			0.0001
			Number of Observations			148

Note: Standard errors are in parentheses.

^* Statistical level of significance at 10%.

^** Statistical level of significance at 5%.

^*** Statistical level of significance at 1%.