Remittances, education and health in Sub-Saharan Africa

Figures & data

Figure 1. International Migrant Stock, Male and Female, SSA, 1990–2017.

Source: Author’s based on UN data (2017).

Figure 2. International migrant stock as a percentage of population, SSA.

Source: Author’s based on UN data (2017).

Figure 3. Percentage change (growth) in migrant stock & population, SSA, 1990–2015.

Source: Author’s based on UN data (2017).

Table 1. Top 10 emigration countries in SSA and their top five destination countries for 2013, in descending order

Emigration countries	Top five destination countries
Somalia	Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen, Libya, Djibouti.
Burkina Faso	Cote D’Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Italy.
Sudan	South Sudan, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Chad, Kuwait.
The Democratic Republic of Congo	Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, France.
Nigeria	USA, UK and Northern Ireland, Cameroon, Italy, Cote D’Ivoire.
Cote D’Ivoire	Burkina Faso, Liberia, France, Mali, Italy
Zimbabwe	South Africa, The UK and Northern Ireland, Malawi, Australia, Botswana.
Mali	Cote D’Ivoire, Nigeria, France, Gabon, Niger.
South Africa	The UK and Northern Ireland, Australia, USA, New Zealand, Canada.
South Sudan	Chad, Ethiopia, Uganda, Sudan, Kenya.

Source: World Bank (2016a).

Figure 4. International migrant Stock by age and sex, SSA, 2000.

Figure 5. International migrant Stock by age and sex, SSA, 2010.

Source: Author’s based on UN data (2017).

Figure 6. International migrant stock by age and sex, SSA, 2017.

Source: Author’s based on UN data (2017).

Figure 7. Emigration from SSA to identified destinations, 2005–2013.

Source: Author’s based on UN data (2017).

Figure 8. Remittances received in current US$, SSA.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank Data (2017).

Figure 9. Remittances received as a percentage of GDP, SSA.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank Data (2017).

Figure 10. Sources of remittances to SSA, 2010.

Source: Ratha et al. (2011, p. 53).

Figure 11. Remittances sent and received, various regions, 1990–2015 average.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank data (2017).

Figure 12. Growth of remittances received, various regions, 1990–2015.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank (2018) data.

Figure 13. Remittances received in US$ for top 10 SSA countries, 2015.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank (2017).

Figure 14. Remittances received as a percentage of GDP for top 10 SSA countries, 2015.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank (2017).

Figure 15. Remittances and other resource flow to SSA, 2000–2015.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank (2017).

Table 2. Uses of remittances in some African countries, by the source of remittance (percentage of total remittance)

	Burkina Faso			Kenya			Nigeria			Senegal			Uganda
USE	OA	WA	D	OA	WA	D	OA	WA	D	OA	WA	D	OA	WA	D
Food	23.5	34.9	48.7	12.8	14.5	29.7	10.1	20.1	1.0	52.6	72.6	81.9	7.6	9.7	12.4
Education	12.4	5.9	9.4	9.6	22.9	20.5	22.1	19.6	4.5	3.6	2.3	4.6	12.7	14.5	20.2
Health	11.3	10.1	12.5	7.3	5.8	7.0	5.1	12.0	10.6	10.7	7.3	2.9	6.3	14.5	24.8
Clothing	5.0	0.7	0.7	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Rent (house, land)	1.4	0.6	1.7	5.7	0.4	7.4	4.4	4.9	0.8	1.0	0.0	2.2	5.1	8.1	4.5
Cars/trucks	0.1	0.0	0.1	1.3	1.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.5	0.2	0.0	0.0	2.5	0.0	0.0
Marriage/ funeral	2.1	3.9	3.1	0.9	1.7	2.0	0.4	1.0	0.7	2.9	2.4	1.1	7.6	6.5	1.7
Construction of new house	25.7	10.1	2.6	11.2	27.5	1.3	5.8	0.0	0.1	7.0	0.7	0.0	2.5	1.6	0.4
Rebuilding of house	0.3	1.0	1.2	5.3	3.1	1.3	4.7	3.2	7.0	4.2	0.7	0.1	6.3	3.2	2.1
Purchase of land	0.0	1.4	0.1	8.4	7.0	1.3	24.8	16.6	18.2	3.0	0.0	0.0	3.8	4.8	2.1
Improvement of farma	0.0	3.9	1.1	2.3	0.4	4.4	.			.				.
Business	10.4	2.6	2.4	3.9	8.4	13.0	21.7	20.1	11.1	1.3	5.7	0.2	7.6	9.7	2.1
Investment				24.2	0.6	4.7		.	.		.	.			..
Other	7.7	24.9	16.3	7.2	6.6	6.9	0.8	2.6	3.5	13.5	8.3	6.9	38.0	27.4	29.8

Calculations based on results of household surveys conducted in Burkina Faso, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda in 2009 as part of the Africa Migration Project.

Note: .. = negligible or missing.

a. Includes agricultural equipment.

Key: OA – Outside Africa (source of remittance)WA – Within Africa (source of remittance) D - Domestic (source of remittance)

Source: Ratha et al. (2011, p. 64).

Figure 16. Educational outcomes for various regions, 1990–2015 average.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank (2017).

Figure 17. Health outcomes for various regions, 1990–2015 average.

Source: Author’s based on World Bank (2017).

Table 3. Descriptive statistics

Variable	Description	Obs	Mean	Std. dev.
Primary enrollment (% gross)	The ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education.	412	78.65358	22.63036
Secondary enrollment the ratio of total enrollment (% gross)	Regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education.	413	38.01903	21.28837
Tertiary enrollment (% gross)	Population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education.	414	2.98926	4.647189
Infant mortality	The number of infants dying before reaching one year of age, per 1,000 live births in a given year.		85.28841	37.74776
Adult mortality	The probability of dying between the ages of 15 and 60.	414	347.6619	95.89038
Survival to age 65	Survive to age 65.the percentage of a cohort of newborn infants that would	414	47.776	10.65119
Life expectancy	The number of years a newborn infant would live.	414	53.05347	7.442735
Real remittance per capita	Personal transfers and compensation of employees, to the population, in real terms.	370	18.2462	160.8305
Public education expenditure	General government expenditure on education (current, capital, transfers) expressed as a percentage of GDP	413	2.55258	3.382456
Public health expenditure	Recurrent and capital spending on health from government, expressed as a percentage of GDP.	414	1.377533	1.620088
GDP per capita (constant 2000)	Gross domestic product divided by midyear population.	414	1543.824	2701.061
Primary completion rate	Repeaters) in the last grade of primary education, regardless of age, divided by population at the entrance age for the last grade of primary education.	414	38.90771	31.19203
Unemployment rate	The share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking employment	414	5.114976	7.327603
Rural population	People living in rural areas as defined by national statistical offices.	414	8,958,292 1.	42e+ 07
Physicians (per 1000 people)	Generalist and specialist medical practitioners.	413	0.095028	0.148601
25–34 years with completed	Percentage of population aged 25–34 with (completed) tertiary schooling. Tertiary education	414	52.12802	59.45642

Table 4. Correlation matrixes between real remittance per capita, education and health outcomes

	Infant	Adult	Survival	Life	Primary	Secondary	Tertiary	Real remittance
	Mortality	mortality	to age 65	expectancy	enrollment	enrollment	enrollment	per capita
Infant mortality	1.0000
Adult mortality	0.3836	1.0000
Survival to age 65	–0.6698	–0.8798	1.0000
Life expectancy	–0.7673	–0.7737	0.9579	1.0000
Primary enrollment	–0.4713	–0.0983	0.3421	0.4332	1.0000
Secondary enrollment	–0.5287	–0.1410	0.4031	0.5020	0.5429	1.0000
Tertiary enrollment	–0.4203	–0.2904	0.4643	0.4932	0.3168	0.6095	1.0000
Real remittance per capita	–0.1337	–0.1762	0.2108	0.1997	0.0392	0.1872	0.2422	1.0000

Table 5. Stationarity tests for various variables

Variable	Panel means	Drift term	Cross–sectional means	Lags	P-value (inverse normal—Z)
Primary enrollment	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Secondary enrollment	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Tertiary enrollment	Included	Included	Removed	0	0.0068***
Infant mortality	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Adult mortality	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Survival to age 65	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0005***
Life expectancy	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0001***
Public education expenditure	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Public health expenditure	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
GDP per capita (constant 2000)	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Primary completion	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Unemployment rate	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Rural population	Included	Included	Removed	1	0.0001***
25–34 years with tertiary education	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***
Physicians	Included	Included	Included	0	0.0000***

Table 6. Real remittance per capita and education

		System GMM, (1) (internal instruments)			System GMM, (2) (internal & external instruments)
	Primary enrollment	Secondary enrollment	Tertiary enrollment	Primary enrollment	Secondary enrollment	Tertiary enrollment
Primary enrollment, t – 1	0.263**			0.311**
Secondary enrollment, t – 1		0.253**			0.338***
Tertiary enrollment, t – 1			0.498*			0.546**
Real remittance per capita, t – 1	0.008	0.070***	0.025***	–0.071	0.065***	0.022***
Public education expenditure, t – 1	0.546**	0.493	–0.007	0.540*	0.553*	–0.018
GDP per capita (cons), t – 1	0.001	0.0003	–0.0001	0.001	0.00004	–0.0001
Infant mortality, t – 1	–0.157*	–0.178***	–0.009	–0.133	–0.101***	–0.011
Unemployment rate, t – 1	-0.176	0.206	-0.007	-0.261	-0.058	-0.005
Rural population, t – 1	1.3e–07	1.3e–07*	2.9e–08*	1.4e–07	8.2e–08	2.3e–08
25-34 years with completed tertiary education, t – 1	0.052*	0.025	0.012***	0.056	0.040**	0.011 **
Year FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Country FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
AR(1) test, p-value	0.039	0.003	0.086	0.045	0.002	0.092
AR(2) test, p-value	0.478	0.544	0.566	0.436	0.454	0.533
Hansen test, p-value	0.855	0.859	0.593	0.605	0.449	0.466
Observations	321	323	324	321	323	324

*, ** and *** represent significance at 10%, 5% and 1%, respectively.

Table 7. Real remittance per capita and health

		System GMM, (1) (internal instruments)				System GMM, (2) (internal & external instruments)
	Infant	Adult	Survival	Life	Infant	Adult	Survival	Life
	Mortality	Mortality	To age 65	Expectancy	Mortality	Mortality	To age 65	Expectancy
Infant mortality, t – 3	0.392***				0.385***
Adult mortality, t – 3		0.323***				0.355***
Survival to age 65, t – 4			0.243				0.292**
Life expectancy, t – 4				0.306**				0.326***
Real remittance per capita, t – 1	–0.017***	–0.238***	0.035***	0.019***	–0.017***	–0.198***	0.033***	0.017***
Public health expenditure, t – 1	–0.174	3.126	–0.366	–0.031	–0.200	4.419	–0.396	–0.117
GDP per capita (cons), t – 1	–0.0003	0.0005	0.00007	0.0002	–0.0004	–0.001	0.00007	0.0001
Primary completion rate, t – 1	–0.168***	0.010	0.004	0.009	–0.168***	0.065	0.004	0.006*
Unemployment rate, t – 1	0.411**	3.316	–0.276	–0.184	0.404*	3.493	–0.364**	–0.195*
Rural population, t – 1	1.9e–08	2.6e–07	–8.7e–09	–9.3e–09	3.5e–08	4.7e–07	–3.1e–08	–3.2e–08
Physicians, t – 1	–13.18**	–59.02**	7.198**	4.534***	–13.26**	–30.55	9.111**	5.869**
Year FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Country FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
AR(1) test, p-value	0.001	0.092	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.025	0.003	0.005
AR(2) test, p-value	0.618	0.132	0.211	0.844	0.625	0.132	0.306	0.751
Hansen test, p-value	0.544	0.379	0.548	0.397	0.658	0.288	0.414	0.326
Observations	260	260	220	220	260	260	220	220

*, ** and *** represent significance at 10%, 5% and 1%, respectively.

Table

Angola	Liberia
Benin	Madagascar
Botswana	Malawi
Burkina Faso	Mali
Burundi	Mauritania
Cameroon	Mauritius
Cape Verde	Mozambique
Central African Republic	Namibia
Chad	Niger
Comoros	Nigeria
Congo (Democratic Republic)	Rwanda
Congo (Republic)	Sao Tome and Principe
Djibouti	Senegal
Equatorial Guinea	Sierra Leone
Eritrea	Somalia
Ethiopia	South Africa
Gabon	Sudan
The Gambia	Swaziland
Ghana	Tanzania
Guinea	Togo
Guinea-Bissau	Uganda
Kenya	Zambia
Lesotho	Zimbabwe

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