Irrigation in farmers’ land-use choices: Panel-data evidence from Viet Nam

Figures & data

Figure 1. Livelihood framework: irrigation and land-use selections. Source: Modified from Scoones (1998) and (Nguyen et al., 2017).

Figure 2. Site surveys. Source: Authors’ creation.

Table 1. Comparison of household-level characteristics, 2008–2016

Variable	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016
Household-level
Natural assets
Land size (ha)	0.882	0.850	0.836	0.798^a***	0.777^a**
Land with irrigation	0.573	0.613^b***	0.620^a***	0.437^d***	0.420^a***
Land with LUC	0.761	0.731^b**	0.807 ^c***, a***	0.807^a***	0.795^a***
Distance to plot (km)	1.050	0.970	1.083	0.958	0.978
Human assets
Dependency ratio	0.646	0.646	0.645	0.630^a*	0.599^e***, a***
Female head (yes = 1)	0.075	0.082	0.090^a**	0.101^a***	0.108^a***
Age average of working-age members (years)	33.356	34.423^b***	38.350 ^c***, a***	40.892^d***, a***	36.068^e***, a***
% of household member at working ages	0.646	0.646	0.645	0.594	0.599
% of “Cannot read and write”	0.087	0.081	0.077^a*	0.077^a***	0.063^e**, a***
% of “Completed Primary”	0.258	0.245	0.233^a***	0.187^d***, a***	0.161^e***, a***
% of “Completed Lower Secondary”	0.395	0.394	0.396	0.396	0.396
% of “Completed Upper Secondary”	0.236	0.266^b***	0.276^a***	0.318^d***, a***	0.360^e***, a***
% of “Can read and write “	0.023	0.014^b***	0.018^a*	0.022	0.020
Physical assets
Number of motorbikes	0.720	0.770^b***	0.813 ^c***, a***	0.869^d***, a***	0.832^e***, a***
Number of pesticide sprayers	0.349	0.373	0.299 ^c***, a***	0.312^a*	0.292^a***
Number of tractors	0.032	0.019^b***	0.020^a**	0.016^a***	0.016^a***
Number of machines of all kinds	0.127	0.116	0.077^a***	0.067^a***	0.064^a***
Financial assets
Housing area (m^2)	67.851	72.300^b***	79.619 ^c***, a***	84.932^d***, a***	85.889^a***
Saving volume (mill. VND)	12,996.47	29,813.06^b***	44,730.87 ^c***, a***	40,065.39^a***	39,918.89^a***
Loan size (mill. VND)	11,984.93	14,048.06	13,920.12	17,448.83^a*	12,037.33*
Private transfer (mill. VND)	3,288.15	3,891.48	6,502.14 ^c***, a***	7,809.25^d**, a***	7,432.95^a***
Public transfer (mill. VND)	3,127.77	3,856.01^b**	4,836.24 ^c***, a***	6,834.55^d***, a***	7,405.69^a***
Social assets
In case of needing money:
ask relative (yes = 1)	0.724	0.801^b***	0.797^a***	0.806^a***	0.766^e***, a***
ask friend (yes = 1)	0.117	0.109	0.196 ^c***, a***	0.171^d**, a***	0.22^e***, a***
ask neighbor (yes = 1)	0.292	0.235^b***	0.229^a***	0.172^d***, a***	0.195^e*, a***
ask other (yes = 1)	0.063	0.032^b***	0.019 ^c***, a***	0.024^a***	0.037^4**, a***
Being an officer (yes = 1)	0.056	0.059	0.045 ^c**, a*	0.056	0.058
Party membership of HH head (yes = 1)	0.057	0.069	0.065	0.077^a**	0.078^a**
Member of Women Union (yes = 1)	0.000	0.090^b***	0.082^a***	0.078^a***	0.069^a***
Topography
% of land with flat	0.438	0.396	0.385	0.061^d***, a***	0.027^e*** a***
% of land with slight slope	0.240	0.254	0.258	0.142^d***, a***	0.243^e***
% of land with moderate slope	0.137	0.151	0.123	0.021^d***, a***	0.019^a***
% of land with steep slope	0.025	0.010^b**	0.009^a***	0.026^d**	0.054^e*, a**
Land quality
% of land with gullies	0.070	0.073	0.062	0.052^a*	0.050^a*
% of dry land	0.140	0.214^b***	0.138 ^c***	0.637^d***, a***	0.647^a***
% of low-lying land	0.100	0.078	0.037 ^c**, a***	0.038^a***	0.034^a***
% of sedimentation land	0.041	0.056	0.023 ^c***, a*	0.000^d*** a***	0.000^a***
% of land with landslide	0.015	0.012	0.013	0.000^a***	0.000^a***
% of land with stony soils/clay	0.052	0.019^b**	0.032 ^c**	0.000^d***, a***	0.000^a***
% of land with no any problem	0.415	0.347^b**	0.466 ^c***	0.000^d***, a***	0.000^a***

Note: ^{B, c, d, e}: compared with the years 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, respectively. ^a: compared with the year 2008. Total observations in each year: 2,131. HH: households. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 2. Comparison of commune-level characteristics, 2008–2016

Variable	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016
Land distribution
% of HHs with no land (base)	0.054	0.007^b***	0.005 ^c*, a***	0.006^a***	0.003^e***, a***
% of HHs with 0.5 ha or less	0.559	0.154^b***	0.039 ^c***, a***	0.031^d***, a***	0.033^e**, a***
% of HHs with 0.5–1.0 ha	0.186	0.141^b***	0.019 ^c***, a***	0.021^a***	0.013^e***, a***
% of HHs with 1.0–2.0 ha	0.126	0.133	0.015 ^c***, a***	0.015^a***	0.009^e***, a***
% of HHs with 2.0–5.0 ha	0.058	0.01^b***	0.007 ^c***, a***	0.005^d***	0.005^e*, a***
% of HHs with > 5.0 ha	0.015	0.003^b***	0.004 ^c***, a***	0.002^d***, a***	0.001^e**, a***
Land quality
% of crop land with irrigation	0.240	0.445^b***	0.311 ^c***, a***	0.388^d*, a***	0.238^e***
Market
Having daily market (yes = 1)	0.511	0.516	0.593 ^c***, a***	0.729^d***, a***	0.797^e***, a***
Having periodic market (yes = 1)	0.256	0.202^b***	0.223^a**	0.293^d***, a***	0.363^e***, a***
Social conditions
Having primary school (yes = 1)	0.998	0.99^b***	0.997 ^c***	0.997	0.995^a*
Having health care center (yes = 1)	0.989	0.955^b***	0.958^a***	0.989^d***	0.998^e***, a***
Having clinic center (yes = 1)	0.058	0.056	0.072 ^c**, a*	0.102^d***, a***	0.139^e***, a***
Having hospital (yes = 1)	0.052	0.02^b***	0.048 ^c***	0.064^d**	0.081^e**, a***
Having post office (yes = 1)	0.000	0.000	0.814 ^c***, a***	0.922^d***, a***	0.950^e***, a***
Having secondary school (yes = 1)	0.849	0.905^b***	0.913^a***	0.951^d***, a***	0.962^e*, a***
Distance
Distance 1 (km)	9.978	9.927	10.898	9.939	11.196
Distance 2 (km)	2.745	3.412^b*	2.529 ^c***	2.025	3.067^e***, a***
Distance 3 (km)	12.453	11.482	11.522 ^c***, a***	11.493^a***	11.225^a***
Distance 4 (km)	5.932	6.358^b***	7.989 ^c***, a***	7.397^d***, a***	5.44^e*
Non-farm employment
Non-farm employment 1	8.458	19.230^b***	17.028^a***	21.466^d**, a**	27.711^e**, a***
Non-farm employment 2 (yes = 1)	0.337	0.207^b***	0.258 ^c***, a***	0.243^a***	0.251^a***
Living conditions
Coverage of street lighting (%)	28.880	35.504^b***	26.620 ^c***, a*	32.985^d***, a***	50.552^e***, a***
Coverage of drinking water (%)	22.500	25.682^b***	37.140 ^c***, a***	35.926^d***, a***	53.128^e***, a***
Natural and agricultural shocks
Flood last year (yes = 1)	0.437	0.396^b***	0.319 ^c***, a***	0.322^a***	0.202^e***, a***
Drought last year (year = 1)	0.412	0.499^b***	0.331 ^c***, a***	0.349^a***	0.407^e***
Typhoon last year (yes = 1)	0.293	0.365^b***	0.250 ^c***, a***	0.336^d***, a***	0.163^e***, a***
Land slide last year (yes = 1)	0.188	0.175	0.128 ^c*** a***	0.080^d***, a***	0.068^a***
Animal/livestock epidemics last year (yes = 1)	0.389	0.420^b*	0.400	0.358^d***, a**	0.243^e***, a***
Plant disease last year (yes = 1)	0.410	0.480^b***	0.392 ^c***, a***	0.348^d***, a***	0.241^a***
Insects/rats last year (yes = 1)	0.298	0.283	0.260	0.190^d***, a***	0.118^e***, a***
Flood two years ago (yes = 1)	0.383	0.584^b***	0.358 ^c***	0.331^d*, a***	0.211^e***, a***
Drought two years ago (year = 1)	0.410	0.415	0.328 ^c***, a***	0.335^a***	0.362^e*, a***
Typhoon two years ago (yes = 1)	0.289	0.335^b***	0.291 ^c***	0.306	0.174^e***, c***
Land slide two years ago (yes = 1)	0.145	0.187^b***	0.130 ^c***	0.087^d***, a***	0.076^a***
Animal/livestock epidemics two years ago (yes = 1)	0.348	0.344	0.426 ^c***, a***	0.408^a***	0.246^e***, a***
Plant disease two years ago (yes = 1)	0.449	0.432	0.439	0.322^d***, a***	0.213^e***, a***
Insects/rats two years ago (yes = 1)	0.269	0.292	0.272	0.140^d***, a***	0.130^a***

Note: ^{B, c, d, e}: compared with the years 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, respectively. ^a: compared with the year 2008. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Distance 1: Distance from the commune center to the nearest bus station (km); Distance 2: Distance from the commune center to the main road (km); Distance 3: Distance from the commune center to the extension center; Distance 4: Distance from the commune center to the extension shop (km). Non-farm employment 1: Number of enterprises with 10 or more employees in the commune; non-farm employment 2: Having enterprises with 10 or more employees in the neighboring communes where people can work there and come back within the day (dummy). Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 3. Comparison of commune-level characteristics of irrigation, 2008–2016

Variable	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016
Panel B1A: Physical conditions: Irrigation canals with concrete or other solid materials
All canals lined (yes = 1)	0.341	0.309^α**	0.261^β***, a***	0.372^χ***, b*	0.366
Mostly lined (yes = 1)	0.258	0.293^α**	0.342^β***, a***	0.372^χ*, b***	0.389 ^c***
Mostly not lined (yes = 1)	0.146	0.105^α***	0.227^β***, a***	0.086^χ***, b***	0.165^δ***
No canal lined (yes = 1) (base)	0.255	0.293^α**	0.170^β***, a***	0.170^b***	0.080^δ***, c***
Panel B1B: Physical conditions: Tertiary canals with concrete or other solid materials
All canals lined (yes = 1)	0.064	0.062	0.114^β***, a***	0.129^b***	0.161^δ***, c***
Mostly lined (yes = 1)	0.294	0.274	0.215^β***, a***	0.357^χ***, b***	0.424^δ***, c***
Mostly not lined (yes = 1)	0.309	0.363^α***	0.358^a***	0.279^χ***, b*	0.288
No canal lined (yes = 1) (base)	0.333	0.301^α**	0.313	0.235^χ***, b***	0.127^δ***, c***
Panel B2: Ownership of Irrigation facilities: Public, cooperative, both or none
Public irrigation facilities (yes = 1)	0.548	0.514^α**	0.546^β*	0.638^χ***, b***	0.539^δ***
Cooperative irrigation facilities (yes = 1)	0.124	0.138	0.159^β*, a***	0.106^χ***, b*	0.014^δ***, c***
Both public and cooperative irrigation facilities (yes = 1)	0.222	0.268^α***	0.243^β*	0.223	0.430^δ***, c***
None of public and cooperative irrigation facilities (yes = 1) (base)	0.105	0.080^α***	0.052^β***, a***	0.032^χ***, b***	0.017^δ***, c***
Panel B3: Irrigation operations: Cooperatives and Commune Irrigation Groups
Cooperatives dealing with irrigation (yes = 1)	0.106	0.232^α***	0.247^a***	0.331^χ***, b***	0.287^δ***, c***
Commune Irrigation Groups in this commune (yes = 1)	0.506	0.584^α***	0.606^a***	0.593^b***	0.598 ^c***
Panel B4: Responsibility shift for irrigation management: given to farmers
Substantial change (yes = 1)	0.210	0.240^α**	0.257^a***	0.240^b**	0.255 ^c***
Some change (yes = 1)	0.178	0.220^α***	0.307^β***, a***	0.254^χ***, b***	0.263 ^c***
No change (yes = 1) (base)	0.612	0.540^α***	0.437^β***, a***	0.506^χ***, b***	0.482 ^c***
Panel B5A: Irrigation decision making: Construction of new facilities
Farmers group (yes = 1) (base)	0.055	0.054	0.060	0.072^b**	0.069 ^c*
Commune irrigation group (yes = 1)	0.011	0.023^α***	0.046^β***, a***	0.062^χ**, b***	0.064 ^c***
Cooperative (yes = 1)	0.053	0.127^α***	0.169^β***, a***	0.107^χ***, b***	0.073^δ***, c**
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.059	0.035^α***	0.063^β***	0.049^χ*	0.064^δ*
Commune People’s committee (yes = 1)	0.438	0.276^α***	0.237^β***, a***	0.298^χ***, b***	0.325^δ*, c***
District People’s Committee (yes = 1)	0.353	0.481^α***	0.412^β***, a***	0.411^b***	0.392 ^c**
Others (yes = 1)	0.031	0.005^α***	0.013^β***, a***	0.000^χ***, b***	0.013^δ***, c***
Panel B5B: Irrigation decision making: Operation of facilities
Farmers group (yes = 1) (base)	0.067	0.079	0.060^β**	0.069	0.055^δ*
Commune irrigation group (yes = 1)	0.157	0.136^α*	0.112^β**	0.119^b***	0.200^δ***, c***
Cooperative (yes = 1)	0.218	0.235	0.215^a***	0.181^χ***, b***	0.151^δ**, c***
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.097	0.123^α**	0.121^a**	0.131^b***	0.128 ^c***
Commune People’s committee (yes = 1)	0.346	0.302^α***	0.336^β**	0.388^χ***, b***	0.319^δ***, c*
District People’s Committee (yes = 1)	0.075	0.124^α***	0.156^β***, a***	0.108^χ***, b***	0.137^δ***, c***
Others (yes = 1)	0.039	0.001^α***	0.000^a***	0.003^χ**, b***	0.009^δ***, c***
Panel B5C: Irrigation decision making: Maintenance of facilities
Farmers group (yes = 1) (base)	0.070	0.071	0.054^β**, a**	0.078^χ***	0.050^δ***, c**
Commune irrigation group (yes = 1)	0.127	0.100^α**	0.108^a*	0.152^χ***, b**	0.204^δ***, c***
Cooperative (yes = 1)	0.203	0.243^α***	0.217^β*	0.179^χ***, b*	0.141^δ***, c***
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.103	0.095	0.159^β***, a***	0.119^χ***	0.134 ^c***
Commune People’s committee (yes = 1)	0.345	0.363	0.304^β***, a***	0.351^χ***	0.340
District People’s Committee (yes = 1)	0.126	0.127	0.155^β**, a**	0.116^χ***	0.121
Others (yes = 1)	0.027	0.002^α***	0.002^a***	0.004^b***	0.010^δ***, c***
Panel B6: Irrigation maintenance: Tertiary canals and structures
Farmers themselves (yes = 1) (base)	0.361	0.221^α***	0.175^β***, a***	0.219^χ***, b***	0.147^δ***, c***
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.056	0.132^α***	0.141^a***	0.145^b***	0.187^δ***, c***
Companies/individuals hired by irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.016	0.016	0.018	0.030^χ**, b***	0.063^δ***, c***
Commune irrigation group/cooperative (yes = 1)	0.389	0.498^α***	0.486^a***	0.438^χ***, b***	0.405^δ**
Companies/individuals hired by commune irrigation group or cooperative (yes = 1)	0.075	0.073	0.093^β**, a*	0.095^b**	0.093 ^c*
Other (yes = 1)	0.102	0.06^α***	0.087^β***	0.074^b***	0.105^δ***

Note: α, β, χ, δ: compared with the years 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, respectively. ^{a, b, c}: compared with the year 2008. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 4. Average farmland area (ha) and land-use types, 2008–2016

	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016
Land size (ha)	0.882	0.850	0.836	0.798^b*	0.777 c**
Share of rice	0.603	0.595	0.596	0.597	0.549^δ***, c***
Share of other annual crops	0.219	0.236	0.238^β*	0.223	0.246^δ**, c**
Share of perennial crops	0.116	0.117	0.123	0.140^b**	0.166^δ**, c***
Share of forestry	0.039	0.032	0.019^β***, a***	0.017^b***	0.016 ^c***
Share of aquaculture	0.024	0.021	0.024	0.024	0.023

Note: α, β, χ, δ: compared with the year 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, respectively. ^{a, b, c}: compared with the year 2008. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 5. Irrigation and land-use choices: Basic model (Panel A)

Variable	Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)	Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
Household-level variables
Natural assets
Land size (ha), ln	−0.2340***	0.0077	0.0937***	0.1140***	0.0188***
	(0.0171)	(0.0175)	(0.0117)	(0.0081)	(0.0050)
Land with irrigation (%)	0.1840*** (0.0129)	−0.1110*** (0.0133)		−0.0486*** (0.0061)	−0.0270*** (0.0037)
Land with LUC (%)				−0.0117** (0.0052)
Distance to plot (km)	−0.0018** (0.0007)		0.0027*** (0.0005)		−0.0005** (0.0002)
Human assets
Female head (yes = 1)	−0.0683* (0.0357)
Age average of working-age members (years)			0.0005** (0.0003)
% of “Cannot read and write” (%)	−0.0882** (0.0420)
% of “Completed Primary”	−0.1100*** (0.0404)
% of “Completed Lower Secondary”	−0.0794* (0.0413)
% of “Completed Upper Secondary”	−0.0554 (0.0432)
Physical assets
Number of motorbikes	0.0311*** (0.0092)	−0.0240** (0.0094)
Number of tractors			−0.0454*** (0.0141)
Financial assets
Loan size (mill. VND), ln			0.0011* (0.0006)
Private transfer (mill. VND), ln	−0.0038*** (0.0009)	0.0026*** (0.0009)
Social assets
In case of needing money: ask relative (yes = 1)					0.0034* (0.0020)
In case of needing money: ask a friend (yes = 1)					0.0050** (0.0024)
Topography
% of land with flat	0.0101 (0.0220)	0.191*** (0.0227)	−0.0013 (0.0144)	0.0080 (0.0104)	−0.1980*** (0.0063)
% of land with slight slope	−0.0560** (0.0225)	0.207*** (0.0234)	0.0245 (0.0150)	0.0125 (0.0107)	−0.186*** (0.0065)
% of land with moderate slope	−0.1050*** (0.0251)	0.1870*** (0.0261)	0.0345** (0.0169)	0.0584*** (0.0119)	−0.1820*** (0.0073)
Land quality
Land share with gullies (%)		0.0445*** (0.0173)		0.0163** (0.0079)	−0.0096** (0.0049)
Dryland share (%)		0.0200**		0.0008	−0.0056**
		(0.0099)		(0.0045)	(0.0028)
Low-lying land share (%)		0.0199 (0.0180)		−0.0073 (0.0083)	−0.0062 (0.0052)
Sedimentation land share (%)		−0.0202 (0.0233)		0.0052 (0.0108)	−0.0058 (0.0066)
Share of land with a landslide (%)		0.0185 (0.0478)		0.0505** (0.0221)	−0.0256** (0.0129)
Land share with stony soils/clay (%)		0.0552* (0.0284)		0.0371*** (0.0129)	−0.0145* (0.0079)
Commune-level variables
Land quality
Share of cropland with irrigation (%)					−0.0023*** (0.0008)
Market
Having periodic market (yes = 1)		−0.0237** (0.0118)	0.0141* (0.0078)
Social conditions
Having primary school (yes = 1)			−0.0935** (0.0441)
Having a health care center (yes = 1)	0.0433** (0.0195)
Having a clinic center (yes = 1)				−0.0232*** (0.0066)
Having a hospital (yes = 1)	0.0611*** (0.0167)	−0.0537*** (0.0172)
Having a post office (yes = 1)	−0.0751*** (0.0072)	0.0660*** (0.0081)	0.0348*** (0.0048)
Having a secondary school (yes = 1)			0.0241** (0.0096)
Distance
Distance from the commune center to the main road (km)				−0.0001* (6.16 x 10^−5)
Distance from the commune center to the extension shop (km)		−1.64 x 10^−5* (8.51 x 10^−6)
Non-farm employment
Number of enterprises with 10 or more employees			−0.0110** (0.0047)
Living conditions
Coverage of street lighting (%)				−0.0002*** (4.50 x 10^−5)
Natural and agricultural shocks
Flood last year (yes = 1)				−0.0110*** (0.0040)
Typhoon last year (yes = 1)				0.0097** (0.0045)
Landslide last year (yes = 1)			−0.0228** (0.0092)
Plant disease last year (yes = 1)				0.0058* (0.0032)
Flood two years ago (yes = 1)				0.0126*** (0.0038)
Typhoon two years ago (yes = 1)				−0.0134*** (0.0044)
Landslide two years ago (yes = 1)			0.0263*** (0.0094)
Animal/livestock epidemics two years ago (yes = 1)				−0.0106*** (0.0033)
Plant disease two years ago (yes = 1)			0.0072* (0.0044)
Insects/rats two years ago (yes = 1)	−0.0144** (0.0071)	0.0174** (0.0073)
Year dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Constant	0.653***	0.108***	0.109**	0.0045	0.206***
	(0.0487)	(0.0238)	(0.0464)	(0.0110)	(0.0064)
Observations	7,675	7,675	7,675	7,806	8,517
Number of HH	1,747	1,747	1,747	1,759	1,945
F statistic	37.67	11.13	12.98	23.71	86.39
F for u (i) = 0	7.864***	5.216***	10.33***	2.539***	5.884***
Log likelihood	1893	1667	4801	7626	12,106
R^2 within model	0.108	0.038	0.038	0.080	0.165
R^2 between model	0.224	0.062	0.177	0.135	0.437
R^2 overall model	0.228	0.065	0.155	0.099	0.305
AIC	−3746.041	−3290.739	−9564.859	−15,206.77	−24,179.04
BIC	−3607.127	−3137.933	−9432.89	−15,046.63	−24,066.24

Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 6. Irrigation and land-use choices: Irrigation physical conditions (Panel B1)

Variable		Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)		Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
		(1)	(2)		(3)	(4)	(5)
Household-level variables		Yes	Yes		Yes	Yes	Yes
Commune-level variables		Yes	Yes		Yes	Yes	Yes
Year dummies		Yes	Yes		Yes	Yes	Yes
Panel B1A: Main canals lined with concrete or other solid materials (base: No canal-lined)
All canals lined (yes = 1)		0.0145 (0.0110)	−0.0279** (0.0114)		0.0105 (0.0074)	−0.0025 (0.0047)	0.0004 (0.0032)
Mostly lined (yes = 1)		0.0023 (0.0102)	−0.0127 (0.0106)		0.0028 (0.0069)	−0.0020 (0.0044)	0.0055* (0.0030)
Mostly not lined (yes = 1)		0.0133 (0.0113)	−0.0098 (0.0117)		0.0037 (0.0076)	−0.0103** (0.0048)	0.0034 (0.0033)
Observations		7,252	7,252		7,252	7,364	7,364
Number of HH		1,740	1,740		1,740	1,752	1,752
F statistic		31.03	9.708		11.42	17.39	48.72
F for u (i) = 0		7.370***	4.916***		9.715***	2.851***	5.643***
Log likelihood		1828	1604		4741	7969	10,722
R^2 within model		0.111	0.041		0.042	0.075	0.161
R^2 between model		0.220	0.051		0.185	0.119	0.442
R^2 overall model		0.221	0.060		0.163	0.091	0.302
AIC		−3609.967	−3158.815		−9438.398	−15,884.26	−21,397.1
BIC		−3451.519	−2986.59		−9286.839	−15,697.85	−21,238.3
Panel B1B: Tertiary canals lined with concrete or other solid materials (base: No canal-lined)
All canals lined (yes = 1)	0.0126 (0.0121)		−0.0280** (0.0125)	0.0112 (0.0083)		−0.0019 (0.0057)	0.0027 (0.0037)
Mostly lined (yes = 1)	0.0081		−0.0232**	0.0153**		−0.0051	0.0011
	(0.0089)		(0.0092)	(0.0061)		(0.0042)	(0.0027)
Mostly not lined (yes = 1)	−0.0004 (0.0083)		−0.0133 (0.0085)	0.0088 (0.0057)		−0.0023 (0.0039)	0.0041 (0.0025)
Observations	7,267		7,267	7,267		7,375	7,375
Number of HH	1,739		1,739	1,739		1,749	1,749
F statistic	30.64		9.282	11.62		20.27	49.75
F for u (i) = 0	7.534***		5.053***	9.407***		2.587***	5.499***
Log likelihood	1879		1677	4626		7333	10,579
R^2 within model	0.109		0.039	0.042		0.083	0.170
R^2 between model	0.223		0.049	0.175		0.139	0.440
R^2 overall model	0.223		0.054	0.153		0.106	0.311
AIC	−3712.974		−3303.889	−9207.914		−14,614.89	−21,110.15
BIC	−3554.479		−3131.612	−9056.31		−14,435.34	−20,944.41

Note: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 7. Irrigation and land-use choices: Ownership of irrigation facilities (Panel B2)

Variable	Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)	Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Panel B2: Ownership of irrigation facilities (base: None of the public and cooperative irrigation facilities)
Household-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Commune-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Public (yes = 1)	−0.0043 (0.0141)	−0.0129 (0.0146)	0.0158 (0.0097)	0.0009 (0.0067)	0.0064 (0.0043)
Cooperative (yes = 1)	−0.0089 (0.0159)	−0.0078 (0.0166)	0.0202* (0.0109)	−0.0011 (0.0076)	0.0028 (0.0048)
Both public and cooperative (yes = 1)	−0.0013 (0.0150)	−0.0143 (0.0154)	0.0138 (0.0103)	0.0042 (0.0071)	0.0020 (0.0045)
Observations	7,672	7,672	7,672	7,802	7,804
Number of HH	1,747	1,747	1,747	1,759	1,759
F statistic	32.52	9.847	11.30	20.45	55.71
F for u (i) = 0	7.789***	5.198***	10.27***	2.508***	5.837***
Log likelihood	1892	1661	4800	7627	11,165
R^2 within model	0.108	0.0370	0.0386	0.0812	0.169
R^2 between model	0.224	0.0671	0.175	0.137	0.452
R^2 overall model	0.228	0.0673	0.154	0.101	0.310
AIC	−3737.322	−3274.997	−9556.994	−15,199.94	−22,284.67
BIC	−3577.579	−3108.309	−9404.197	−15,011.96	−22,124.53

Note: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 8. Irrigation and land-use choices: Irrigation operations (Panel B3)

Variable	Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)	Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Panel B3: Irrigation operations: Cooperatives and Commune Irrigation Groups
Household-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Commune-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Cooperatives (yes = 1)	0.0032 (0.0077)	0.0013 (0.0077)	0.0002 (0.0051)	0.0061* (0.0035)	0.0020 (0.0023)
Commune Irrigation Groups (yes = 1)	−0.0186*** (0.0070)	−0.0200*** (0.0070)	0.0057 (0.0046)	−0.0058* (0.0032)	0.0004 (0.0020)
Observations	7,675	7,669	7,675	7,806	7,802
Number of HH	1,747	1,747	1,747	1,759	1,759
F statistic	10.70	10.36	11.76	21.98	55.55
F for u (i) = 0	5.223***	5.185***	10.31***	2.517***	5.848***
Log likelihood	1668	1674	4802	7630	11,160
R^2 within model	0.0383	0.0388	0.0383	0.0805	0.169
R^2 between model	0.0540	0.0618	0.174	0.135	0.452
R^2 overall model	0.0596	0.0646	0.153	0.0990	0.310
AIC	−3290.871	−3300.142	−9562.823	−15,209.94	−22,273.58
BIC	−3131.119	−3133.463	−9416.963	−15,035.87	−22,113.45

Note: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 9. Irrigation and land-use choices: Management responsibility shift (Panel B4)

Variable	Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)	Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Panel B4: Responsibility shift in irrigation management: given to farmers (base: No change)
Household-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Commune-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Substantial change (yes = 1)	0.0166** (0.0075)	−0.0064 (0.0078)	−0.0048 (0.0051)	−0.0017 (0.0036)	−0.0024 (0.0023)
Some change (yes = 1)	0.0006 (0.0074)	−0.0007 (0.0076)	−0.0065 (0.0050)	0.0009 (0.0035)	0.0011 (0.0022)
Observations	7,537	7,537	7,537	7,665	7,667
Number of HH	1,745	1,745	1,745	1,757	1,757
F statistic	34.79	10.21	11.39	22.33	58.24
F for u (i) = 0	7.632***	5.091***	9.802***	2.527***	5.719***
Log likelihood	1866	1637	4730	7505	10,923
R^2 within model	0.112	0.0375	0.0380	0.0835	0.172
R^2 between model	0.224	0.0616	0.181	0.134	0.446
R^2 overall model	0.229	0.0653	0.157	0.100	0.314
AIC	−3687.327	−3228.489	−9418.426	−14,960.79	−21,802.54
BIC	−3534.92	−3069.154	−9272.947	−14,787.18	−21,649.76

Note: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 10. Irrigation and land-use choices: Decision-making (Panel B5)

Variable	Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)	Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Household-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Commune-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Panel B5A: Irrigation decision-making: Construction of new facilities (base: Farmers group)
Commune irrigation group (yes = 1)	0.0170 (0.0182)	0.0086 (0.0188)	0.0001 (0.0125)	−0.0167* (0.0086)	−0.0066 (0.0056)
Cooperative (yes = 1)	0.0153 (0.0155)	0.00705 (0.0160)	−0.00157 (0.0107)	−0.0227*** (0.0073)	0.0006 (0.0047)
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	−0.0089 (0.0183)	0.0147 (0.0190)	0.0148 (0.0126)	−0.0216** (0.0087)	0.0035 (0.0056)
Commune People’s Committee (yes = 1)	0.0200 (0.0132)	0.0068 (0.0137)	0.0010 (0.0091)	−0.0226*** (0.0062)	−0.0032 (0.0041)
District People’s Committee (yes = 1)	−0.0018 (0.0129)	0.0161 (0.0133)	0.0092 (0.0088)	−0.0247*** (0.0060)	0.0012 (0.0039)
Others (yes = 1)	0.0037	0.0424	−0.0044	−0.0283**	−0.0065
	(0.0290)	(0.0300)	(0.0199)	(0.0136)	(0.0089)
Observations	7,411	7,411	7,411	7,529	7,531
Number of HH	1,736	1,736	1,736	1,748	1,748
F statistic	29.25	8.822	9.851	19.96	48.78
F for u (i) = 0	7.553***	4.999***	9.526***	2.502***	5.573***
Log likelihood	1891	1651	4687	7531	10,729
R^2 within model	0.115	0.0390	0.0402	0.0885	0.175
R^2 between model	0.229	0.0590	0.194	0.137	0.454
R^2 overall model	0.231	0.0644	0.171	0.103	0.320
AIC	−3729.966	−3247.805	−9324.996	−15,004.03	−21,405.39
BIC	−3550.288	−3061.215	−9152.228	−14,803.16	−21,225.3
Panel B5B: Irrigation decision-making: Operation of facilities (base: Farmers group)
Commune Irrigation Group (yes = 1)	0.0021 (0.0135)	0.0258* (0.0140)	−0.0159* (0.0093)	−0.0030 (0.0065)	−0.0091** (0.0041)
Cooperative (yes = 1)	0.0071 (0.0138)	0.0014 (0.0142)	−0.0045 (0.0094)	0.0012 (0.0066)	−0.0076* (0.0042)
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.0002 (0.0146)	0.0093 (0.0150)	0.0043 (0.0010)	−0.0122* (0.0070)	−0.0053 (0.0044)
Commune People’s Committee (yes = 1)	−0.0051 (0.0123)	0.0142 (0.0127)	0.0065 (0.0085)	−0.0094 (0.0059)	−0.0078** (0.0037)
District People’s Committee (yes = 1)	−0.0080 (0.0142)	0.0252* (0.0146)	−0.0082 (0.0097)	−0.0084 (0.0068)	−0.0031 (0.0043)
Others (yes = 1)	−0.0081	0.0148	0.0129	0.0135	−0.0112
	(0.0316)	(0.0327)	(0.0219)	(0.0151)	(0.0096)
Observations	7,402	7,402	7,402	7,521	7,523
Number of HH	1,736	1,736	1,736	1,748	1,748
F statistic	28.97	9.025	9.865	20.39	51.09
F for u (i) = 0	7.587***	5.010***	9.572***	2.430***	5.811***
Log likelihood	1902	1680	4698	7433	10,808
R^2 within model	0.114	0.0399	0.0403	0.0904	0.176
R^2 between model	0.226	0.0559	0.185	0.137	0.457
R^2 overall model	0.231	0.0623	0.162	0.106	0.323
AIC	−3751.108	−3305.32	−9346.464	−14,807.56	−21,565.51
BIC	−3571.461	3118.763	−9173.727	−14,606.73	−21,392.37
Panel B5C: Irrigation decision making: Maintenance of facilities (base: Farmers group)
Commune Irrigation Group (yes = 1)	0.0018 (0.0139)	0.0166 (0.0143)	−0.0049 (0.0095)	−0.0092 (0.0066)	−0.0069* (0.0042)
Cooperative (yes = 1)	−0.0022 (0.0139)	0.0130 (0.0141)	0.0013 (0.0095)	−0.0074 (0.0065)	−0.0112*** (0.0042)
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	0.0046 (0.0146)	0.0081 (0.0150)	0.0093 (0.0101)	−0.0169** (0.0069)	−0.0115*** (0.0044)
Commune People’s Committee (yes = 1)	−0.0055 (0.0128)	0.0127 (0.0131)	0.0096 (0.0087)	−0.0119** (0.0060)	−0.0106*** (0.0038)
District People’s Committee (yes = 1)	−0.0210 (0.0140)	0.0342** (0.0145)	0.0056 (0.0096)	−0.0128* (0.0067)	−0.0074* (0.0042)
Others (yes = 1)	−0.0218	0.0509	−0.0067	−0.0073	−0.0062
	(0.0329)	(0.0340)	(0.0226)	(0.0156)	(0.0099)
Observations	7,391	7,391	7,391	7,509	7,511
Number of HH	1,738	1,738	1,738	1,750	1,750
F statistic	29.14	9.171	9.495	20.03	51.49
F for u (i) = 0	7.568***	5.013***	9.519***	2.448***	5.750***
Log likelihood	1896	1673	4672	7433	10,793
R^2 within model	0.115	0.0407	0.0389	0.0891	0.177
R^2 between model	0.228	0.0555	0.182	0.136	0.449
R^2 overall model	0.231	0.0621	0.161	0.104	0.319
AIC	−3739.441	−3291.166	−9293.339	−14,807.84	−21,535.11
BIC	−3559.833	−3104.649	−9120.639	−14,607.05	−21,362.01

Note: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

Table 11. Irrigation and land-use choices: Irrigation maintenance (Panel B6)

Variable	Rice land (%)	Other annual lands (%)	Perennial land (%)	Forestry land (%)	Aquaculture area (%)
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Panel B6: Irrigation maintenance: Tertiary canals and structures (base: Farmers themselves)
Household-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Commune-level variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	−0.0245** (0.0106)	0.0071 (0.0109)	0.0245*** (0.0072)	−0.0131*** (0.0050)	0.0040 (0.0032)
Companies/individuals hired by irrigation and drainage company (yes = 1)	−0.0083 (0.0182)	0.0035 (0.0187)	0.0034 (0.0123)	−0.0022 (0.0086)	0.0027 (0.0055)
Commune irrigation group/cooperative (yes = 1)	−0.0190** (0.0081)	0.0033 (0.0083)	0.0188*** (0.0055)	−0.0079** (0.0038)	0.0016 (0.0025)
Companies/individuals hired by commune irrigation group or cooperative (yes = 1)	−0.0204* (0.0119)	0.0002 (0.0123)	0.0280*** (0.0081)	−0.0098* (0.0057)	−0.0039 (0.0036)
Other (yes = 1)	0.0022	−0.0103	0.0258***	−0.0135**	−0.0047
	(0.0131)	(0.0135)	(0.0089)	(0.0062)	(0.0040)
Observations	7,443	7,443	7,443	7,561	7,563
Number of HH	1,738	1,738	1,738	1,750	1,750
F statistic	30.56	9.061	10.79	20.45	52.86
F for u (i) = 0	7.477***	4.990***	9.537***	2.402***	5.656***
Log likelihood	1857	1644	4743	7440	10,773
R^2 within model	0.114	0.0384	0.0418	0.0871	0.174
R^2 between model	0.225	0.0599	0.201	0.144	0.452
R^2 overall model	0.229	0.0628	0.175	0.108	0.320
AIC	−3664.897	−3236.267	−9438.883	−14,824.51	−21,497.93
BIC	−3492.022	−3056.477	−9272.923	−14,630.45	−21,331.58

Note: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Source: Authors’ estimation from VARHS08-16

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