Does globalization matter for environmental sustainability? New evidence from the QARDL approach

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

	ECP	GDP	GLOBGG	GLOBE	GLOBS	GLOBP
Mean	4.072	18934.33	57.521	64.963	52.129	56.457
Maximum	5.990	33898.25	67.264	72.815	73.279	72.739
Minimum	2.116	15129.57	48.478	58.863	34.793	47.817
Std. Dev.	1.286	3093.885	6.613	3.307	13.222	9.325
Jarque-Bera	3.253	325.172	3.999	0.333	3.772	5.570
Probability	0.000	0.000	0.002	0.014	0.000	0.005
Observations	38	38	38	38	38	38

Figure 1. The trends of ecological footprint and Globalization indices.

Table 2. Correlation matrix.

	ECP
ECP	1
GLOBE	0.584***
	(0.000)
GLOBG	0.617***
	(0.000)
GLOBP	0.344***
	(0.000)
GLOBS	0.591***
	(0.000)
GDP	0.619***
	(0.000)

Notes: *** and ** denote significance at the 1%, and 5% levels.

Figure 2. Analysis flowchart.

Table 3. Unit root test.

Variables	ADF		PP
	In level	In difference	In level	In difference
ECP	−0.719	−7.231***	−1.132	−7.281***
GLOBG	−0.419	−5.564***	−0.439	−5.557***
GLOBE	−2.455	−4.718***	−1.979	−4.680***
GLOBP	−2.025	−3.481**	−0.383	−3.594***
GLOBS	0.553	−4.933**	−0.345	−5.048***
lnGDP	−0.587	−5.199***	−0.348	−5.221***
lnGDP^2	−4.687	−5.121***	−4.434	−5.133***

Notes: p-values are in parentheses. *** and ** denote significance at the 1%, and 5% levels.

Table 4. Quantile autoregressive distributed lag (QARDL) results.

Quantiles	α(τ)	${\delta }^{*}(\tau )$	βGDP(τ)	βGDP^2(τ)	βGLOB(τ)	φ1(τ)	ω0(τ)	γ0(τ)	θ0(τ)
Model A: GLOBG
0.25	0.040	−0.228***	0.121**	−0.042	0.173***	0.150	0.180	−0.190***	−0.107
	(0.142)	(0.002)	(0.016)	(1.039)	(0.007)	(0.355)	(0.214)	(0.009)	(0.117)
0.50	0.103	−0.284**	0.342***	−0.102***	0.137***	0.109	0.161	−0.182***	−0.109
	(0.130)	(0.014)	(0.008)	(0.006)	(0.008)	(0.207)	(0.257)	(0.002)	(0.178)
0.75	0.110	−0.110**	0.284**	−0.084***	0.190**	0.273*	0.166**	−0.157	−0.110
	(0.112)	(0.011)	(0.017)	(0.009)	(0.040)	(0.073)	(0.016)	(0.135)	(0.121)
Model B: GLOBE
0.25	0.011	−0.294***	0.150**	−0.122	0.420**	0.219***	0.159	−0,113***	−0.123
	(0.114)	(0.004)	(0.021)	(0.302)	(0.021)	(0.004)	(0.108)	(0.008)	(0.658)
0.50	0.002	−0.221**	0.290***	−0.175***	0.390**	0.227***	0.138	−0.117**	−0.125
	(0.201)	(0.041)	(0.009)	(0.007)	(0.033)	(0.006)	(0.152)	(0.012)	(0.363)
0.75	0.075	−0.271*	0.253***	−0.167***	0.310***	0.254***	0.145**	−0.127	−0.121
	(0.251)	(0.070)	(0.005)	(0.000)	(0.008)	(0.002)	(0.025)	(0.319)	(0.199)
Model C: GLOBP
0.25	0.025	−0.194**	0.217***	−0.204	−0.168	0.147***	0.121	−0.113**	−0.129***
	(0.159)	(0.015)	(0.008)	(0.204)	(0.148)	(0.000)	(0.148)	(0.038)	(0.008)
0.50	0.032	−0.253**	0.328**	−0.215***	−0.165	0.173***	0.132	−0.117**	−0.124**
	(0.146)	(0.000)	(0.040)	(0.003)	(0.403)	(0.003)	(0.552)	(0.012)	(0.043)
0.75	0.059	−0.278***	0.315***	−0.243***	−0.132***	0.234***	0.145***	−0.127	−0.119**
	(0.109)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.005)	(0.001)	(0.309)	(0.039)
Model D: GLOBS
0.25	0.015	−0.118**	0.111**	−0.230	−0.175	0.187**	0.186	−0.108***	−0.122
	(0.159)	(0.012)	(0.022)	(0.361)	(0.118)	(0.036)	(0.135)	(0.002)	(0.558)
0.50	0.035	−0.201**	0.319***	−0.103***	−0.166	0.153***	0.108 (0.520)	−0.127*	−0.104
	(0.204)	(0.033)	(0.005)	(0.002)	(0.523)	(0.001)		(0.087)	(0.128)
0.75	0.022 (0.325)	−0.220*** (0.002)	0.165*** (0.003)	−0.215*** (0.000)	−0.142** (0.048)	0.203** (0.022)	0.217** (0.018)	−0.203 (0.214)	−0.155 (0.136)

Note: p-values are in parentheses. *** is the level of significance at 1%, ** is the level of significance at 5% and * is the level of significance at 10%.

Table 5. Results of the Wald test for parameter stability.

Variables	Model A: GLOBG	Model B: GLOBE	Model C: GLOBP	Model D: GLOBS
$\delta$	5.648*** (0.000)	7.112*** (0.000)	4.978*** (0.000)	6.547*** (0.000)
${\beta }_{\mathit{\text{GDP}}}$	2.088*** (0.000)	4.641*** (0.000)	3.291*** (0.000)	2.184*** (0.000)
${\beta }_{\mathit{\text{GD}}{P}^2}$	2.254*** (0.000)	3.207*** (0.000)	2.057 (0.247)	0.120 (0.655)
${\beta }_{\mathit{\text{GLOB}}}$	6.077*** (0.000)	4.881*** (0.000)	3.896*** (0.000)	5.377*** (0.000)
${\phi }_1$	1.032*** (0.000)	2.520*** (0.000)	1.554*** (0.000)	3.670*** (0.000)
${\omega }_0$	2.566*** (0.000)	0.108 (0.382)	0.654 (0.209)	1.511 (0.366)
${\gamma }_0$	1.067 (0.361)	0.273 (0.808)	0.654 (0.117)	1.031 (0.204)
${\theta }_0$	2.320*** (0.001)	0.104 (0.152)	1.330 (0.816)	3.220*** (0.000)

Note: p-values are in parentheses. *** is the level of significance at 1%.