Understanding the gender gap in productivity in agricultural production among smallholder cereal growers in rural Ghana

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographic characteristics and results of a test of mean differences by gender of plot manager.

Variable	Pooled sample	Male manager	Female manager	Test of difference in mean
Age in years	52.20	52.20	51.55	0.64
Years of farming	17.76	18.74	12.13	6.61***
Years of schooling	3.12	3.26	2.32	0.93***
Literacy	0.21	0.22	0.15	0.07***
Married	0.86	0.92	0.55	0.37***
Marriage has been dissolved	0.09	0.04	0.38	−0.34***
Never married	0.04	0.04	0.07	−0.03***
Christian religion	0.26	0.22	0.50	−0.28***
Islamic religion	0.51	0.53	0.36	0.17***
Other religion	0.23	0.25	0.14	0.11***
Akan tribe	0.10	0.09	0.15	−0.07***
Gurma, Mole-Dagbani tribe	0.75	0.78	0.61	0.16***
Ewe tribe	0.09	0.07	0.20	−0.13***
Other tribe	0.06	0.07	0.04	0.03**
Household head	0.90	0.95	0.60	0.35***
Size of household	5.00	5.21	3.92	1.30***
Children in the household	0.71	0.77	0.36	0.41***
Household own nonfarm enterprise	0.23	0.22	0.26	−0.04*
Total number plots owned by the individual	1.48	1.50	1.38	0.12***
Total observation	2995	2,553	442

Note. Statistical significance is indicated as follows: p values. *<0.1; **<0.05; ***<0.01.

Source: Ghana Socio-Economic Panel Survey Wave 3 (GSPS 3).

Figure 1. Distribution of total cereals harvested and total cereals harvested by an acre of land by gender. Source: 3rd wave of Ghana Socioeconomic Panel Survey.

Figure 2. Distribution of total maize, millet, and rice harvested and total maize, millet, and rice harvested by an acre of land by gender. Source: 3rd wave of Ghana Socioeconomic Panel Survey.

Table 2. Plot-level characteristics and results of a test of mean differences by gender of plot manager.

	Pooled sample	Male manager	Female manager	Test of difference in mean
Outcome variable	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Yield
Log quantity of minibags of cereals harvested	2.20	2.26	1.89	0.37***
Log quantity of minibags of cereals harvest per acre	1.20	1.19	1.25	−0.05
Log quantity of minibags of maize harvested	2.22	2.28	1.88	0.40***
Log quantity of minibags of maize harvest per acre	1.17	1.16	1.20	−0.05
Log quantity of minibags of millet harvested	1.68	1.75	1.04	0.71***
Log quantity of minibags of millet harvest per acre	0.65	0.66	0.56	0.10
Log quantity of minibags of rice harvested	2.51	2.51	2.44	0.08
Log quantity of minibags of rice harvest per acre	1.44	1.41	1.62	−0.21
Plot characteristics
Plot size in acres	3.56	3.78	2.30	1.48***
Walk from house to plot	0.89	0.89	0.89	−0.002
Distance from house to plot	5.73	6.51	1.24	5.26*
Loamy	0.51	0.51	0.48	0.04
Gravel	0.09	0.10	0.07	0.03*
Sandy	0.16	0.17	0.12	0.05***
Clay-filled	0.18	0.18	0.17	0.01
Other soil type	0.19	0.18	0.27	−0.09***
Labor inputs
Plot owner works on the plot	0.75	0.76	0.70	0.06***
Family or relative worked on the plot	0.75	0.77	0.67	0.11***
Hired labor worked on the plot	0.11	0.09	0.20	−0.10***
Communal labor was done on the plot	0.05	0.05	0.05	−0.01
Sales
Harvest sold to consumers in the community	0.12	0.11	0.19	−0.08***
Harvest sold to consumers in other communities	0.07	0.07	0.07	−0.01
Harvest sold to market traders	0.31	0.32	0.24	0.08***
Harvest sold to trade organization	0.001	0.002	0.00	0.002
Crops
Maize	0.77	0.76	0.82	−0.06***
Millet	0.18	0.20	0.12	0.08***
Rice	0.18	0.18	0.15	0.03
Farming practices
No intercropping done on the plot	0.59	0.58	0.64	−0.06***
Irrigation	0.02	0.01	0.07	−0.05***
Improved seeds	0.15	0.13	0.21	−0.08***
Weedicide, insecticide, fungicide	0.23	0.22	0.27	−0.04**
Chemical fertilizer	0.34	0.35	0.28	0.10***
Organic fertilizer	0.05	0.05	0.05	−0.003
Total observation	2,995	2,553	442

Note. Statistical significance is indicated as follows: p values *<0.1; **<0.05; ***<0.01.

Source: Ghana Socio-Economic Panel Survey Wave 3 (GSPS 3).

Table 3. OLS results on gender productivity of cereal growers in rural Ghana.

	Log (total quantity of minibags harvested for the entire harvest period)					log (quantity of minibags harvested per acre of land)
	Naïve	Pooled sample	Female manager	Male manager	Naïve		Pooled sample	Female manager	Male manager
Dependent variable	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)		(6)	(7)	(8)
1 If female manager	−0.39***	−0.08			−0.04		−0.02
	(0.12)	(0.14)			(0.11)		(0.15)
Age in years		−0.00*	−0.01	−0.01***			−0.00	−0.00	−0.01**
		(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)			(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)
Years of education		−0.00	0.01	−0.00			−0.00	0.01	0.00
		(0.01)	(0.04)	(0.01)			(0.01)	(0.04)	(0.01)
Literacy		0.20	0.42	0.18			0.19	0.36	0.17
		(0.16)	(0.46)	(0.17)			(0.14)	(0.45)	(0.15)
Married		0.01	1.61***	0.05			0.11	1.47***	0.09
		(0.19)	(0.42)	(0.23)			(0.17)	(0.46)	(0.20)
Marriage has been dissolved		−0.09	1.70***	−0.02			−0.02	1.46**	0.03
		(0.22)	(0.63)	(0.26)			(0.21)	(0.64)	(0.25)
Christian religion		−0.12	−0.24	−0.02			−0.07	−0.16	0.02
		(0.10)	(0.22)	(0.12)			(0.10)	(0.22)	(0.13)
Islamic religion		0.16	0.36	0.22*			0.15	0.45	0.20
		(0.11)	(0.29)	(0.11)			(0.11)	(0.31)	(0.13)
Akan tribe		0.14	1.59*	0.06			0.14	1.47	0.10
		(0.22)	(0.84)	(0.20)			(0.20)	(0.88)	(0.20)
Gurma, mole-Dagbani tribe		−0.30	1.33**	−0.42**			−0.34**	1.11**	−0.42**
		(0.18)	(0.53)	(0.18)			(0.16)	(0.54)	(0.17)
Ewe tribe		−0.15	0.31	−0.69*			−0.21	0.09	−0.47
		(0.35)	(0.40)	(0.41)			(0.30)	(0.40)	(0.36)
Household head		0.23*	−0.08	0.37*			0.20	−0.08	0.43**
		(0.13)	(0.24)	(0.20)			(0.14)	(0.25)	(0.17)
Household size		0.05***	−0.00	0.04***			0.04***	−0.01	0.04**
		(0.01)	(0.04)	(0.01)			(0.01)	(0.05)	(0.02)
Children in the household		−0.07*	−0.13	−0.07*			−0.06	−0.16	−0.05
		(0.04)	(0.10)	(0.04)			(0.04)	(0.10)	(0.04)
Household own nonfarm enterprise		0.16	−0.04	0.20			0.13	−0.05	0.15
		(0.11)	(0.22)	(0.13)			(0.11)	(0.21)	(0.14)
Total number of plots owned by the individual		−0.03	0.17*	−0.02			−0.01	0.17	0.00
		(0.04)	(0.10)	(0.05)			(0.04)	(0.11)	(0.05)
Plot size in acres		0.13***	0.22***	0.14***			−0.11***	−0.16*	−0.10***
		(0.02)	(0.08)	(0.02)			(0.02)	(0.08)	(0.02)
Walk from house to plot		0.08	0.46	0.05			0.07	0.48	0.04
		(0.08)	(0.40)	(0.08)			(0.07)	(0.36)	(0.08)
Distance from house to plot		0.00***	0.10	0.00***			0.00***	0.09	0.00***
		(0.00)	(0.08)	(0.00)			(0.00)	(0.09)	(0.00)
Loamy soil		−0.12	−1.53***	−0.05			−0.11	−1.54***	−0.04
		(0.11)	(0.47)	(0.11)			(0.12)	(0.50)	(0.12)
Gravel soil		0.18	−0.47	0.24*			0.20	−0.61	0.27*
		(0.13)	(0.61)	(0.12)			(0.14)	(0.59)	(0.14)
Sandy soil		0.12	−1.36***	0.22*			0.09	−1.41***	0.19
		(0.11)	(0.38)	(0.12)			(0.12)	(0.43)	(0.13)
Clay-filled soil		−0.00	−1.70***	0.09			−0.02	−1.65***	0.08
		(0.11)	(0.46)	(0.12)			(0.11)	(0.47)	(0.12)
Other soil type		0.00	−1.81***	0.20			−0.04	−1.74***	0.17
		(0.15)	(0.61)	(0.15)			(0.15)	(0.62)	(0.15)
Plot owner works on the plot		−0.02	−0.03	−0.02			−0.00	−0.01	−0.01
		(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)			(0.05)	(0.06)	(0.05)
Family or relative worked on the plot		0.05	0.09	−0.00			0.05	0.09	−0.00
		(0.05)	(0.07)	(0.05)			(0.05)	(0.06)	(0.06)
Hired labor worked on the plot		0.09	0.06	0.08			0.08	0.08	0.08
		(0.06)	(0.12)	(0.06)			(0.05)	(0.12)	(0.05)
Communal labor was done on the plot		0.16**	0.16**	0.09			0.16**	0.19***	0.09
		(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.08)			(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.08)
Harvest sold to consumers in the community		0.49***	0.26	0.53***			0.46***	0.23	0.51***
		(0.11)	(0.21)	(0.13)			(0.09)	(0.21)	(0.10)
Harvest sold to consumers in other communities		0.49***	−0.01	0.52***			0.45***	0.12	0.46***
		(0.12)	(0.32)	(0.16)			(0.11)	(0.33)	(0.16)
Harvest sold to market traders		0.33***	0.66***	0.34***			0.29***	0.60***	0.30***
		(0.08)	(0.16)	(0.08)			(0.08)	(0.16)	(0.08)
Maize		−0.26**	−0.69	−0.27**			−0.30**	−0.66	−0.31**
		(0.11)	(0.47)	(0.12)			(0.13)	(0.48)	(0.14)
Millet		−0.52***	−1.20**	−0.54***			−0.55***	−1.19**	−0.57***
		(0.10)	(0.55)	(0.10)			(0.11)	(0.55)	(0.11)
Rice		−0.16	−0.52	−0.23*			−0.11	−0.53	−0.17
		(0.12)	(0.59)	(0.12)			(0.12)	(0.58)	(0.13)
No intercropping done on the plot		0.34***	−0.10	0.35***			0.31***	−0.25	0.32***
		(0.09)	(0.23)	(0.10)			(0.09)	(0.26)	(0.10)
Irrigation		−0.25	−0.63*	−0.08			−0.22	−0.77*	0.05
		(0.33)	(0.33)	(0.44)			(0.24)	(0.41)	(0.37)
Improved seeds		−0.02	−0.25	0.01			0.03	−0.31	0.07
		(0.09)	(0.24)	(0.10)			(0.08)	(0.22)	(0.10)
Weedicide, insecticide, fungicide		0.12	0.66***	0.15			0.14*	0.62***	0.17*
		(0.09)	(0.18)	(0.10)			(0.08)	(0.19)	(0.09)
Chemical fertilizer		0.25***	0.39	0.31***			0.20***	0.26	0.26***
		(0.07)	(0.25)	(0.07)			(0.07)	(0.30)	(0.08)
Organic fertilizer		0.14	−0.48	0.10			0.05	−0.57*	0.04
		(0.12)	(0.29)	(0.13)			(0.15)	(0.31)	(0.15)
Constant	2.26***	1.42***	0.37	1.41***	1.21***		1.29***	0.98	1.13***
	(0.02)	(0.31)	(0.86)	(0.33)	(0.02)		(0.32)	(0.96)	(0.35)
Observations	2,995	2,995	442	2,553	2,995		2,995	442	2,553
R-squared	0.28	0.51	0.81	0.52	0.25		0.46	0.79	0.48

Note. All estimations include district fixed effects. Other ethnic group is the reference group for ethnic group, other religion is the reference group for religion, and never married is the reference group for marital relationship. District fixed effects are not displayed. Standard errors clustered under the district level are in parentheses below. p Values *<0.1; **<0.05; ***<0.01.

Source: Ghana Socio-Economic Panel Survey Wave 3 (GSPS 3).

Specifically, *** indicate 1 % significant level, **represent 5% significance level and * represent 10% significant level.

Table 4. Decomposition of the gender differential in the productivity of cereal farmers.

	Log (total quantity of minibags harvested for the entire harvesting period)				Log (quantity of minibags harvested per acre of land)
	Cereals	Maize	Millet	Rice		Cereals	Maize	Millet	Rice
Dependent variable	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)		(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
Difference	0.3749***	0.3994***	0.7078***	0.0827		−0.0530	−0.0458	0.1042	−0.2058*
	(0.0504)	(0.0512)	(0.1300)	(0.1442)		(0.0486)	(0.0531)	(0.1351)	(0.1214)
Endowment	0.3521***	0.3641***	0.2233	0.2248*		−0.0234	−0.0185	−0.2256	0.0189
	(0.0467)	(0.0457)	(0.1499)	(0.1310)		(0.0443)	(0.0452)	(0.1609)	(0.1210)
Structural	0.0229	0.0353	0.4845***	−0.1421		−0.0296	−0.0273	0.3298**	−0.2247*
	(0.0533)	(0.0593)	(0.1313)	(0.1202)		(0.0515)	(0.0585)	(0.1437)	(0.1164)
Age in years	−0.0015	0.0000	−0.0006	0.0259		−0.0014	0.0000	−0.0004	0.0224
	(0.0021)	(0.0008)	(0.0093)	(0.0254)		(0.0021)	(0.0005)	(0.0059)	(0.0221)
Years of education	0.0069	0.0055	−0.0035	0.0982**		0.0083	0.0063	−0.0043	0.1211***
	(0.0055)	(0.0046)	(0.0118)	(0.0422)		(0.0054)	(0.0047)	(0.0143)	(0.0424)
Literacy	0.0083	0.0051	0.0068	−0.0048		0.0069	0.0053	0.0049	−0.0095
	(0.0051)	(0.0050)	(0.0141)	(0.0264)		(0.0049)	(0.0049)	(0.0106)	(0.0271)
Household head	0.0451**	0.0195	−0.0539	−0.0540		0.0329*	0.0120	−0.0812	−0.0442
	(0.0200)	(0.0218)	(0.0476)	(0.0488)		(0.0186)	(0.0206)	(0.0528)	(0.0460)
Household size	0.0440***	0.0366***	0.0043	0.0688***		0.0353***	0.0285***	0.0059	0.0612**
	(0.0098)	(0.0104)	(0.0119)	(0.0262)		(0.0088)	(0.0098)	(0.0160)	(0.0243)
Children in the household	−0.0157**	−0.0023	−0.0074	−0.0809***		−0.0111	0.0020	−0.0161	−0.0685**
	(0.0079)	(0.0089)	(0.0293)	(0.0307)		(0.0082)	(0.0095)	(0.0289)	(0.0298)
Household own nonfarm enterprise	−0.0042	−0.0015	0.0000	0.0476**		−0.0025	0.0008	−0.0001	0.0483**
	(0.0027)	(0.0023)	(0.0008)	(0.0236)		(0.0020)	(0.0023)	(0.0013)	(0.0240)
Total number of plots owned by the individual	−0.0022	0.0009	−0.0074	0.0174		−0.0002	0.0015	−0.0037	0.0167
	(0.0024)	(0.0019)	(0.0123)	(0.0119)		(0.0024)	(0.0021)	(0.0070)	(0.0118)
Plot size in acres	0.1772***	0.1701***	0.1669***	0.1416**		−0.1887***	−0.2145***	−0.3248***	−0.0804**
	(0.0158)	(0.0173)	(0.0393)	(0.0609)		(0.0166)	(0.0199)	(0.0506)	(0.0374)
Walk from house to plot	−0.0000	0.0001	0.0018	0.0029		0.0000	0.0001	0.0031	0.0049
	(0.0002)	(0.0007)	(0.0044)	(0.0055)		(0.0002)	(0.0005)	(0.0056)	(0.0070)
Distance from house to plot	0.0029**	0.0038**	0.0090	−0.0232		0.0028**	0.0036**	0.0183	−0.0225
	(0.0013)	(0.0018)	(0.0098)	(0.0182)		(0.0013)	(0.0017)	(0.0135)	(0.0190)
Loamy soil	−0.0043	−0.0111*	0.0193	−0.0117		−0.0047	−0.0139**	0.0063	−0.0178
	(0.0036)	(0.0062)	(0.0396)	(0.0161)		(0.0039)	(0.0069)	(0.0395)	(0.0234)
Gravel soil	0.0073*	0.0127***	−0.0026	−0.0264		0.0068*	0.0117**	−0.0022	−0.0406
	(0.0039)	(0.0048)	(0.0166)	(0.0256)		(0.0037)	(0.0046)	(0.0145)	(0.0278)
Sandy soil	0.0074*	0.0059	0.0718**	−0.0621		0.0041	−0.0001	0.0594*	−0.0604
	(0.0039)	(0.0048)	(0.0341)	(0.0413)		(0.0033)	(0.0045)	(0.0311)	(0.0403)
Clay-filled soil	0.0002	0.0020	0.0136	0.1110**		0.0001	0.0029	0.0084	0.1326**
	(0.0008)	(0.0028)	(0.0175)	(0.0474)		(0.0005)	(0.0030)	(0.0142)	(0.0527)
Other soil type	0.0082	0.0194*	−0.0472	−0.0000		0.0141*	0.0286**	−0.0226	−0.0001
	(0.0066)	(0.0103)	(0.0434)	(0.0104)		(0.0073)	(0.0113)	(0.0380)	(0.0173)
Plot owner works on the plot	−0.0007	−0.0036	−0.0272	0.0058		−0.0009	−0.0029	−0.0337	0.0055
	(0.0023)	(0.0034)	(0.0218)	(0.0117)		(0.0023)	(0.0033)	(0.0264)	(0.0112)
Family or relative worked on the plot	0.0035	0.0057	0.0027	−0.0207		0.0049	0.0070	0.0016	−0.0244
	(0.0045)	(0.0052)	(0.0050)	(0.0186)		(0.0045)	(0.0053)	(0.0038)	(0.0186)
Hired labor worked on the plot	−0.0002	−0.0001	−0.0000	−0.0004		−0.0003	−0.0002	−0.0000	−0.0003
	(0.0006)	(0.0008)	(0.0025)	(0.0025)		(0.0007)	(0.0011)	(0.0033)	(0.0018)
Communal labor was done on the plot	−0.0132**	−0.0142*	−0.0009	−0.0568**		−0.0123*	−0.0160**	−0.0008	−0.0455*
	(0.0065)	(0.0075)	(0.0029)	(0.0287)		(0.0064)	(0.0076)	(0.0026)	(0.0259)
Harvest sold to consumers in the community	−0.0463***	−0.0273**	−0.0032	−0.1194***		−0.0447***	−0.0268**	−0.0026	−0.1078**
	(0.0123)	(0.0109)	(0.0519)	(0.0460)		(0.0119)	(0.0107)	(0.0424)	(0.0434)
Harvest sold to consumers in other communities	−0.0031	0.0051	0.0019	−0.0213		−0.0027	0.0046	−0.0002	−0.0151
	(0.0082)	(0.0093)	(0.0053)	(0.0188)		(0.0073)	(0.0084)	(0.0052)	(0.0146)
Harvest sold to market traders	0.0323***	0.0140	0.0568**	0.0898***		0.0283***	0.0125	0.0567**	0.0652**
	(0.0094)	(0.0102)	(0.0266)	(0.0331)		(0.0084)	(0.0091)	(0.0267)	(0.0299)
No intercropping done on the plot	−0.0191**	−0.0212**	0.0354	−0.0519*		−0.0179**	−0.0210**	0.0333	−0.0496*
	(0.0083)	(0.0096)	(0.0261)	(0.0295)		(0.0078)	(0.0095)	(0.0247)	(0.0285)
Irrigation	0.0213***	0.0215**	0.0000	−0.0112**		0.0201***	0.0209**	0.0000	−0.0097**
	(0.0078)	(0.0099)	(0.0000)	(0.0052)		(0.0075)	(0.0096)	(0.0000)	(0.0046)
Improved seeds	0.0049	0.0014	0.0361	−0.0411		0.0027	0.0008	0.0420	−0.0337
	(0.0035)	(0.0024)	(0.0277)	(0.0268)		(0.0034)	(0.0016)	(0.0313)	(0.0262)
Weedicide, insecticide, fungicide	−0.0055*	−0.0028	0.0001	−0.0018		−0.0056*	−0.0025	−0.0004	−0.0017
	(0.0034)	(0.0025)	(0.0096)	(0.0168)		(0.0034)	(0.0024)	(0.0099)	(0.0155)
Chemical fertilizer	0.0184***	0.0212***	−0.0006	0.0356**		0.0147**	0.0151**	−0.0080	0.0287*
	(0.0071)	(0.0081)	(0.0099)	(0.0167)		(0.0058)	(0.0062)	(0.0109)	(0.0159)
Organic fertilizer	0.0001	0.0014	0.0130	0.0335		0.0002	0.0019	0.0139	0.0480
	(0.0005)	(0.0026)	(0.0093)	(0.0247)		(0.0011)	(0.0033)	(0.0097)	(0.0333)
Christian religion	0.0442***	0.0303***	0.1111***	0.0023		0.0395***	0.0324***	0.0933***	−0.0293
	(0.0079)	(0.0076)	(0.0309)	(0.0236)		(0.0076)	(0.0076)	(0.0279)	(0.0247)
Islamic religion	0.0449***	0.0357***	0.0465*	0.0908***		0.0413***	0.0357***	0.0402*	0.0484**
	(0.0075)	(0.0075)	(0.0260)	(0.0260)		(0.0070)	(0.0076)	(0.0227)	(0.0198)
Other religion	−0.0108***	−0.0090***	−0.0106	−0.0202		−0.0103***	−0.0082***	−0.0107	−0.0165
	(0.0032)	(0.0033)	(0.0120)	(0.0153)		(0.0032)	(0.0032)	(0.0119)	(0.0127)
Akan tribe	−0.0122***	−0.0095**	−0.0068	−0.0112		−0.0117***	−0.0088**	−0.0069	−0.0100
	(0.0044)	(0.0043)	(0.0124)	(0.0125)		(0.0043)	(0.0043)	(0.0126)	(0.0114)
Gurma, mole-Dagbani tribe	0.0175***	0.0225***	0.0000	−0.0172		0.0180***	0.0214***	0.0000	0.0021
	(0.0063)	(0.0078)	(0.0000)	(0.0197)		(0.0063)	(0.0077)	(0.0000)	(0.0193)
Ewe tribe	−0.0109**	−0.0015	−0.0007	−0.0507**		−0.0091*	−0.0013	−0.0006	−0.0308*
	(0.0052)	(0.0063)	(0.0049)	(0.0235)		(0.0052)	(0.0064)	(0.0044)	(0.0186)
Other ethnic group	−0.0002	0.0006	−0.0083**	−0.0014		−0.0001	0.0007	−0.0087**	−0.0005
	(0.0014)	(0.0023)	(0.0035)	(0.0036)		(0.0014)	(0.0024)	(0.0037)	(0.0031)
Married	0.0068	−0.0036	−0.0643**	0.0854**		0.0258**	0.0169	−0.0283	0.0770**
	(0.0128)	(0.0134)	(0.0259)	(0.0397)		(0.0125)	(0.0133)	(0.0267)	(0.0358)
Marriage has been dissolved	0.0309*	0.0344**	−0.1287**	0.0549		0.0202	0.0258	−0.0566	0.0541
	(0.0159)	(0.0162)	(0.0518)	(0.0361)		(0.0155)	(0.0162)	(0.0534)	(0.0342)
Never married	−0.0023	−0.0038	0.0000	0.0017		0.0003	−0.0010	0.0000	0.0012
	(0.0021)	(0.0027)	(0.0000)	(0.0043)		(0.0018)	(0.0022)	(0.0000)	(0.0037)

Note. Robust standard errors are in parentheses below. p Values*<0.05; **<0.01; ***<0.001.

Source: Ghana Socioeconomic Panel Survey 2017/2018 (GSPS 3).

Specifically, *** indicate 1 % significant level, **represent 5% significance level and * represent 10% significant level.

Table 5. Decomposition of the gender differential in productivity at various percentiles.

	Log (total quantity of minibags harvested for the entire harvesting period)				Log (quantity of minibags harvested per acre of land)
Dependent	Cereals	Maize	Millet	Rice		Cereals	Maize	Millet	Rice
variable	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)		(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
10th Percentile
Difference	0.1867***	0.1851***	0.3514***	–		−0.2432***	−0.1795***	−0.7193***	−0.3309***
	(0.0268)	(0.0255)	(0.1305)	–		(0.0495)	(0.0576)	(0.1755)	(0.1113)
Endowment	−0.0024	−0.0229	0.1259	–		−0.3970***	−0.3277***	−0.8727***	−0.5760***
	(0.0242)	(0.0236)	(0.1674)	–		(0.0585)	(0.0626)	(0.2792)	(0.1428)
Structural	0.1892***	0.2080***	0.2255	–		0.1538**	0.1481**	0.1534	0.2452*
	(0.0344)	(0.0356)	(0.1835)	–		(0.0635)	(0.0699)	(0.2725)	(0.1319)
25th Percentile
Difference	0.2140***	0.1731***	0.8552***	–		−0.0953*	−0.0792	0.2353	−0.3130***
	(0.0495)	(0.0516)	(0.1579)	–		(0.0530)	(0.0593)	(0.1857)	(0.0924)
Endowment	0.0836*	0.1083**	−0.1493	–		−0.1663***	−0.1584***	−0.5883***	−0.1913*
	(0.0441)	(0.0438)	(0.2004)	–		(0.0456)	(0.0484)	(0.2102)	(0.1020)
Structural	0.1304**	0.0648	1.0045***	–		0.0710	0.0791	0.8236***	−0.1217
	(0.0599)	(0.0656)	(0.1831)	–		(0.0603)	(0.0684)	(0.2210)	(0.1067)
50^th percentile
Difference	0.3592***	0.3873***	0.6576***	0.0593		−0.0783	−0.1152	0.3837**	−0.1473
	(0.0559)	(0.0618)	(0.1381)	(0.1224)		(0.0728)	(0.0807)	(0.1606)	(0.1827)
Endowment	0.3802***	0.3824***	−0.0478	0.2056		0.0988	0.1529**	−0.2828	−0.0345
	(0.0556)	(0.0556)	(0.2238)	(0.1422)		(0.0622)	(0.0638)	(0.2282)	(0.1596)
Structural	−0.0211	0.0049	0.7054***	−0.1462		−0.1771**	−0.2681***	0.6666***	−0.1128
	(0.0696)	(0.0753)	(0.2260)	(0.1393)		(0.0830)	(0.0915)	(0.2351)	(0.1720)
75^th Percentile
Difference	0.3860***	0.4221***	0.3048***	0.4089***		−0.0773	−0.0834	–	−0.1415
	(0.0532)	(0.0582)	(0.1071)	(0.1442)		(0.0583)	(0.0628)	–	(0.1665)
Endowment	0.4934***	0.4901***	0.1497	0.4633**		0.1152**	0.0895*	–	0.3246**
	(0.0597)	(0.0621)	(0.1421)	(0.1970)		(0.0520)	(0.0522)	–	(0.1560)
Structural	−0.1074	−0.0680	0.1552	−0.0545		−0.1925***	−0.1729**	–	−0.4661***
	(0.0684)	(0.0750)	(0.1339)	(0.2034)		(0.0681)	(0.0736)	–	(0.1726)
90^th Percentile
Difference	0.4367***	0.5101***	0.6643***	−0.1468		0.6526***	−0.0987*	–	–
	(0.0761)	(0.0782)	(0.1009)	(0.2612)		(0.0806)	(0.0508)	–	–
Endowment	0.3849***	0.3634***	0.4794***	0.3806		0.2925***	0.1953***	–	–
	(0.0671)	(0.0699)	(0.1744)	(0.2525)		(0.0760)	(0.0407)	–	-
Structural	0.0518	0.1466*	0.1850	−0.5274**		0.3601***	−0.2940***	–	-
	(0.0802)	(0.0872)	(0.1771)	(0.2341)		(0.0936)	(0.0617)	–	-

Note. Robust standard errors are in parentheses below. p Values: *<0.05; **<0.01; ***<0.001.

Source: Ghana Socioeconomic Panel Survey 2017/2018 (GSPS 3).

Data availability statement

The datasets analysed during the current study are available in the Yale Economic Growth Center, and the web link for the dataset is https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/nada/index.php/catalog/97.