Ensuring water security by reviving selected springs in Kangra region, Himachal Himalaya, India

Figures & data

Figure 1. Identified springs in the study area.

Table 1. Identified springs in the Salol region, district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh.

Sl.No.	Name	Sampling Sites	Latitude	Longitude	Geology	Land Use Land Cover	Elevation (masl)	Type of Spring
	Nandrul	S1	32° 5’25.28“N	76°14’36.60“E	Boulder Conglomerate	Grazing land/Bushes/Barren Land	696	Contact Spring
	Nandrul	S2	32° 4’54.26“N	76°14’2.37“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Pine forest	619	Seepage Spring
	Madha	S3	32° 4’52.49“N	76°13’34.55“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Agricultural Land	636	Seepage Spring
	Madha	S4	32° 4’57.97“N	76°13’30.63“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Grassland	617	Seepage Spring
	Rajal	S5	32° 5’58.09“N	76°12’54.72“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Cultivated Land	691	Seepage Spring
	Rajal	S6	32° 5’52.12“N	76°12’56.30“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Grazing Land/Settlement	694	Seepage Spring
	Rajal	S7	32° 5’46.18“N	76°12’45.31“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Agricultural Land	684	Seepage Spring
	Bhatlahru (A)*	S8	32° 5’28.18“N	76°12’43.30“E	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Grazing Land/Settlement	675	Depression Spring
	Bhatlahru	S9	32° 4’55.29“N	76°12’54.47“E	Sandstone with clay	Pine Forest/Settlement	662	Contact Spring
	Pathiar	S10	32° 4’35.74“N	76°12’39.17“E	Sandstone with clay	Pine forest/barren land/Settlement	726	Seepage Spring
	Salol Khas*	S11	32° 6’56.41“N	76°12’3.80“E	Sandstone with clay	Grassland/Bushes	653	Seepage Spring

*Springs marked with asterisks were selected to conduct Spring Rejuvenation Study.

Figure 2. Groundwater potential zone map of the study area.

Figure 3. Methodology used for groundwater potential zone mapping.

Table 2. Categorization of factors influencing the groundwater potential zones.

Factors	Geomorphology	Geology	Lineament Density	Slope	LULC	Drainage Density	Weight
Geomorphology	6	5	4	3	2	1	0.40
Geology	6/2	5/2	4/2	3/2	2/2	1/2	0.20
Lineament Density	6/3	5/3	4/3	3/3	2/3	1/3	0.13
Slope	6/4	5/4	4/4	3/4	2/4	1/4	0.10
LULC	6/5	5/5	4/5	3/5	2/5	1/5	0.08
Drainage Density	6/6	5/6	4/6	3/6	2/6	1/6	0.06

Table 3. Recharge zone characteristics of the selected springs.

Name	Physiography and Structures	Rock type	Land use	Land cover	Slope (degree)	Spring type
Bhatlahru	Spring is located at the center of a grazing land of an elevation of 675 m	Boulder, gravel, sand and silt (Alluvium)	Grazing land and settlement in smaller fraction	shrubs	Slope ranges from 0–40 degree	Perennial spring
Salol Khas	Spring is located at the base of a hill at an elevation of 653 m	Sandstone with clay	Wasteland	Shrubs and bushes in down slope	Slope ranges from 0–30 degree	Perennial spring

Figure 4. Observed pH level in the years of 2021(post monsoon) and 2022 (pre monsoon).

Figure 5. Observed TDS concentration in the years of 2021(post monsoon) and 2022 (pre monsoon).

Figure 6. Observed electrical conductivity in the years of 2021(post monsoon) and 2022 (pre monsoon).

Table 4. Descriptive statistics analysis of water quality parameters pH, TDS, EC for the post-monsoon season (2021).

Parameters	Sample Number	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard Deviation	Standard Error
pH	17	6.46	7.62	7.05	0.32	0.07
TDS	17	96	549	272.35	119.32	28.94
EC	17	145	818	396.35	177.63	43.08

Table 5. Descriptive statistics analysis of water quality parameters pH, TDS, EC for the pre-monsoon season (2022).

Parameters	Sample Number	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard Deviation	StandardError
pH	17	0	8.76	6.50	2.49	0.60
TDS	17	0	809	357.52	196.82	47.73
EC	17	2	1212	536.11	294.74	71.48

Table 6. Correlation analysis for in-situ water quality variables for the post-monsoon season (2021).

	pH	TDS	EC
pH	1
TDS	0.291233	1
EC	0.290304	0.941615	1

Numeric figures in bold indicate very strong correlation between the variables.

Table 7. Correlation analysis for in-situ water quality variables for the pre-monsoon season (2022).

	pH	TDS	EC
pH	1
TDS	0.672726	1
EC	0.672692	0.999918	1

Numeric figures in bold indicate very strong correlation between the variables.

Figure 7. Thematic spatial maps of study area: (a) Geology; (b) geomorphology.

Table 8. Classification of weighted factors and their ratings influencing the potential zones in the study area.

Factor	Weight	Rank	Overall
(A) Geomorphology
Structural Hills Moderately Dissected	40	2	80
Denudational Hills Highly Dissected		3	120
Piedmont Alluvium		4	160
(B) Geology
Sandstone with Clay	20	2	40
Boulder,Gravel,Sand,Silt and Clay (Alluvium)		4	80
Boulder Conglomerate		4	80
(C) Lineament Density
Very Low	13	1	13
Low		2	26
Moderate		3	39
High		4	52
Very High		5	65
(D) Slope
0–10	10	5	50
10–20		4	40
20–30		3	30
30–40		2	20
Greater Than 40		1	10
(E) LULC
Agricultural	08	3	24
Barren Land		3	24
Forest		4	32
Ravinous Land		2	16
Settlement		1	08
Water		5	40
(F) Drainage Density
Very Low	06	5	30
Low		4	24
Moderate		3	18
High		2	12
Very High		1	6

Figure 8. Thematic spatial maps of study area: (a) Landcover/land use; (b) Slope; (c) drainage density; (d) lineament density.

Figure 9. Time series TMAX (ºC) data from 1981–2021 for Bhatlahru region.

Figure 10. Time series TMIN (ºC) data from 1981–2021 for Bhatlahru region.

Figure 11. Time series precipitation (mm) data with effect from 1981–2021 for Bhatlahru region.

Table 9. Computed climate data for the study area from 1981–9021.

Climate variables	Arithmetic mean	SD	Coefficient of skewness	Coefficient of kurtosis	CV%
TMax	39.66	1.54	−0.01	−0.48	3.89
TMin	2.22	1.29	−0.57	0.57	58.15
Rainfall	892.11	311.95	0.41	−0.73	34.96

SD-Standard Deviation; CV-Coefficient of variation.

Figure 12. Hydrograph of salol boweri with respecte to the impact of artificial recharge and rainfall pattern.

Figure 13. Hydrograph of bhatlahru boweri with respect to the rainfall pattern.

Table 10. Estimated storage of water in constructed recharge structures.

Sr. No.	Location	Type of Recharge structures	Dimensions	Capacity	Total constructed recharge structures
	Bhathalru	Recharge pits	$1\mathrm{m}\times 1\mathrm{m}\times 0.6\mathrm{m}$	$0.6{\mathrm{m}}^3$	100
	Bhathalru	Percolation tank	$9\mathrm{m}\times 6\mathrm{m}\times 1\mathrm{m}$	$54{\mathrm{m}}^3$	01
	Salol	Contour trenches	$2\mathrm{m}\times 0.3\mathrm{m}\times 0.6\mathrm{m}$	$0.36{\mathrm{m}}^3$	150

Table 11. Correlation matrix for Bhatlahru and salol spring water level with rainfall.

The correlation matrix for Bhatlahru spring water level and rainfall
	Rain Gauge	Bhatlahru water level
Observed Rainfall from installed rain gauge
Rain Gauge	1
Bhatlahru water level	0.029995495	1
Secondary data
	Data access viewer	Bhatlahru water level
Data access viewer	1
Bhatlahru water level	−0.066328709	1
The correlation matrix for Salol spring water level and rainfall
	Data access viewer	Salol water level
Data access viewer	1
Salol water level	0.058240014	1