Housing, health and energy: a characterisation of risks and priorities across Delhi’s diverse settlements

Figures & data

Figure 1. Overview of the methodology

Table 1. Settlement types in Delhi, from (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2008)

Type of Settlement	Development and Settlement Characteristics	Est. population in 2000 (million)	% of total est. population
JJ Clusters	Arose from encroachment on public/private land. Extremely poor living conditions.	2.072	14.8
Slum Designated Areas	Improved version of JJ Clusters	2.664	19.1
Unauthorised Colonies	Developed on agricultural land by illegal means	0.740	5.3
JJ Resettlement Colonies	Plots allocated by the DDA to resettle JJ clusters from 1975	1.776	12.7
Rural Villages	Will probably be urbanized by 2021. Similar characteristics to rural villages.	0.740	5.3
Regularised- Unauthorised Colonies	Similar characteristics to the unauthorized colony, but with better infrastructure and right to tenure.	1.776	12.7
Urban Villages	Rural villages that fell into urban areas after rapid urbanization	0.888	6.4
Planned Colonies	Planned by DDA or private agencies from the early 1960s.	3.308	23.7
Total:		13.964	100.00

Figure 2. Examples of category 1: planned housing (top left), category 2: urban/rural villages (top right), category 3: unauthorised housing (bottom left), and category 4: JJ Clusters (bottom right)

Table 2. Typical properties of each settlement type

Type:	Planned dwellings	Urban/rural villages	Unauthorised colonies	JJ Clusters	Ref
%	24	11	18	47	(Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2008)
Description:	- Planned housing built by private agencies or the DDA - Often high rise - Legal tenure & planned services	- Evolved organically over time, with legal tenure - Services introduced as and when without prior planning - 3 to 4 storey houses in close and narrow streets	- Built on illegal land however settlements are becoming regularised with legal tenure - Infrastructure is introduced on as and when basis - Little information on housing style	− 1 to 2 storey buildings, with small ground floor areas (20 m^2) - Self-built and undergo incremental growth - Often only one façade exposed - No legal tenure, apart from in the case of JJ Resettlement colonies	(Sivam 2003, Ishtiyaq and Kumar 2011, UN Habitat, Kumar Soni 2011, Ahmad and Choi 2011, Mitchell 2010)
Rooms	1 x living room 2 x bedrooms 1 x kitchen 1 x bathroom	1 x living room 1 x bedroom 1 x kitchen 1 x bathroom	1 x living room 2 x bedroom 1 x kitchen 1 x bathroom	2 x multi-purpose rooms	(Government of India 2011, Kumar Soni 2011, Mitchell 2010, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009)
Housing materials	- Wall: Plaster & Burnt Brick - Roof: Brick + Reinforced Cement Concrete	- As planned housing however indications suggest thicker roofs	- Little information but assumed to be as planned housing	Varied: from temporary building materials to brick and cement construction	(Government of India 2011, N. S. S. O.-M. of S. & P. I. Government of India 2010a, Kumar and Suman 2013, Ramesh et al. 2010, TERI and Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics)
Income distributions	- High/Mid-income groups	- Mid/Low-income groups	- Mid-income groups	- Low-income groups	(Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2008)
Cooking fuel and separate kitchen	- LPG -Separate kitchen	- LPG -Separate kitchen	- LPG -Separate kitchen	- LPG - No separate kitchen	(Government of India 2011)
Electrical appliances	- TV - Fridge - Lighting	- TV - Fridge - Lighting	- TV - Fridge - Lighting	- TV - Fridge - Lighting	(N. S. S. O.-M. of S. & P. I. Government of India 2010a, TERI 2007, N. S. S. O.-M. of S. & P. I. Government of India 2010b)
Ventilation and cooling systems	- AC & fans - Windows with cross ventilation likely	- Fans & air coolers - Poor levels of ventilation	- Fans & air coolers - Windows with cross ventilation likely	- Fans - Poor levels of ventilation (no or small windows)	(TERI 2007, N. S. S. O.-M. of S. & P. I. Government of India 2010b)
Infrastructure and services	Piped water, toilets and sewage systems	Water tanks, toilets, containment tanks.	Water tanks, toilets, containment tanks	Water by tanker, no sanitation.
Problems reported:	- High temperatures in top-floor flats	- Overcrowding, congestion, and structural dilapidation - Studies suggest reliance on artificial lighting and extremely poor levels of ventilation	No data available	- No available or low-quality infrastructure and facilities - Overcrowding, poor ventilation and tightly cramped housing	[Ishtiyaq and Kumar, 2011; Kumar Soni 2011; Mitchell, 2010; Nix E, et al., 2014]

Table 3. Assumptions on energy use in dwellings

Category	Usage	Carbon Intensity
Cooking	13.3 kg LPG per month per household in all settlement types (D’Sa and Murthy 2004), assuming a calorific content of 45,750 kJ/kg (Natarajan et al. 2008)	0.2147 kg CO2 per kWh (Carbon Trust 2011)
Lighting	Estimated from (TERI 2007) to be: Bedrooms – 60 W bulbs 2hrs/day Living rooms 60 W bulbs 5hrs/day Bathrooms 55 W tube lighting 2hrs/day Kitchens 55 W tube lighting 2hrs/day	0.943 kG CO2 per kWh was assumed (IEA 2007)
Appliances	120 W TVs was calculated in all settlements 5hrs/day (TERI 2007) 200 W refrigerator was assumed to be always on (TERI 2007)
Cooling	Fans (60 W) turned on in all dwellings when hourly external temperatures exceed 26.2ºC during occupied hours in bedrooms and living rooms (Indraganti 2011). The external temperature was taken from a typical weather file for the location of Delhi, commonly used for building simulation (Indian Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) Air coolers (200 W) (used in unauthorised and urban villages) and A/C units (1750 W) (used in planned) turned on when external temperatures exceed 28.5 and 31.3ºC respectively in occupied bedrooms and living rooms (Indraganti 2011)

Table 4. Hazards assessed in the Delhi housing stock (from UK HHSRS apart from those marked * which were added for the Delhi stock)

Physiological requirements Hygrothermal conditions, pollutants	Psychological impacts Space, security, light & noise
Damp & mould Heat Cold Particulate matter* Asbestos CO and combustion products (NOx, NO2 SO2) Uncombusted LPG Lead Radiation VOCs	Overcrowding Entry by intruders Inadequate lighting Noise
Infections Hygiene, sanitation & water supply	Accidents Falls, electric shocks, fires, burns & scalds, collisions, cuts & strains
Vector-borne diseases* Domestic hygiene, pests, refuse Food safety Personal hygiene, sanitation and drainage Water supply	Falls baths Falls level surfaces Falls on stairs Falls between levels Electrical shocks Fire Flames, hot surfaces Collision, and entrapment Explosions Position and operability of amenities Structural collapse and falling elements

Table 5. Risk matrix used to assess each hazard based on the likelihood of occurrence and spread of harm

Table 6. Annual energy use by end-use (and percentages) by settlement type

Energy use (kWh)		Settlement type
Fuel type	End-use	Planned	Urban villages	Unauthorised	JJ clusters
LPG	Cooking	2028 (26%)	2028 (39%)	2028 (39%)	2028 (46%)
Electricity	Lighting	387 (5%)	234 (4%)	277 (5%)	153 (3%)
	Cooling appliances	3493 (44%)	1033 (20%)	963 (18%)	233 (5%)
	Other appliances	1971 (25%)	1971 (37%)	1971 (38%)	1971 (45%)
Total energy use		7879	5266	5239	4385

Figure 3. Estimated kg CO₂ emissions per household by settlement type

Figure 4. Comparison of electrical energy use estimates with other studies in literature in composite climate

Table 7. Estimated household health hazard risks final rating (S_O,H), with red denoting highest risk hazards and green lowest risk hazards (with modal responses of Low, Medium, High and Severe for the likelihood of occurrence, O, and expected harm, H, noted in subscript)

Table A1. Sensitivity analysis input distribution and coefficients for energy use variables

End-use		Input distribution		Sensitivity analysis method
Type	Appliance	Mean	Standard deviation	Pearson Coefficient	R^2
Power rating (Watts)
Lighting	Bulb	60	9.8	0.077	0.0059
	Tube	55	9.0	−0.017	0.00029
Other appliances	TV	120	19.6	0.018	0.00031
	Fridge	200	32.7	0.44	0.20
Cooling appliance	Fan	60	9.8	0.069	0.0047
	AC	1750	285.8	0.70	0.49
Hours of use (hours)
Lighting	Bulb	5	0.8	0.013	0.00017
	Tube	2	0.3	−0.0094	0.000088
Other appliances	TV	5	0.8	0.077	0.0059
Cooling appliance (living room)	Fans	2881	470.5	0.12	0.015
	A/C	1450	236.8	0.58	0.33
Cooling appliance (bedroom)	Fans	999	163.1	0.020	0.00039
	A/C	140	22.9	0.10	0.010

Table C1. Exposure risk, housing modifiers/conditions and available health evidence used to estimate the likelihood of harm and expected harm

Hazard type	Health effects	Exposure risk	Housing modifiers/conditions	Health evidence	Risk rating per settlement
					Type	Mo	Md	Mx	Mn
Physiological requirements: Hygrothermal conditions, pollutants
Damp & mould	Asthma, allergic symptoms	- Outdoor RH can increase up to 80% in Delhi during the monsoon season. - Measurements during the monsoon season in apartments in Hyderabad, which has a warm and humid climate, found an indoor RH of approximately 55% (Indraganti 2011), which is close to the 60% risk level for the UK above which of damp and mould growth becomes significant (Department For Communities and Local Government 2006). - The research found high-exposure to fungi for Children in Delhi homes, with highest levels in winter months (Sharma et al. 2011).	- Lack of purpose-provided ventilation in both urban/rural villages and in JJ settlements may lead to higher indoor RH in these dwellings due to an inability to remove moisture produced from indoor activities. - Rising damp through poorly constructed dwellings, particularly at risks are low-income dwellings built directly on the ground.	− 2.12% of recorded deaths in the NCT of Delhi from bronchitis and asthma (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012). - High fungal counts were connected with a higher prevalence of skin sensitization and to respiratory allergies in Delhi Children (Sharma et al. 2011).	Planned	4	4	6	1
					Urban villages	6	6	6	1
					Unauthorised	4	4	8	2
					JJ clusters	6	6	9	2
Heat	Cardiovascular stain (stroke), dehydration, respiratory conditions, genitourinary diseases	- Outdoor temperature up to 47°C in Delhi during the summer months. - Indoor temperatures measured in the warm and humid climate regions of India range between 30–39°C during the summer months (Indraganti 2011, Singh et al. 2010, Hegde 2010, Dili et al. 2010).	- Limited penetration of air conditioning and limited purpose provided natural ventilation, high occupant density, and a lack of climate-sensitive design features in the self-built JJ cluster structures (Mitchell 2010, TERI 2007). - Modifications such as partitioning of structures into multi-unit dwellings in urban/rural villages could lead to overheating in the summer due to a combination of overcrowding and reduced cross-ventilation potential (Kumar Soni 2011). - Planned dwellings are likely to have access to air conditioning with top floor flats shown to be most reliant on A/C use in an observational study carried out in apartments in Hyderabad (Indraganti 2011).	- Heatwave mortality has been increasing (Akhtar 2007) with the highest mortality burden in the poorest states (Kumar 1998). - In Delhi, 3.9% increase in mortality for each degree increase above mean daily temperature 29°C (lags of 0–1 days) (McMichael et al. 2008). - EM-DAT database lists 25 heatwaves recorded between 1953 to 2015, resulting in 11,926 deaths across India (Guha-Sapir et al.)	Planned	6	6	6	2
					Urban villages	6	6	9	6
					Unauthorised	6	9	12	6
					JJ clusters	12	12	12	9
Cold	Cardio-respiratory illness (including heart attack, stroke, upper and lower respiratory tract infection)	- Minimum outdoor temperatures in winter have been recorded to be 0°C. - Indoor temperatures measured in the warm and humid climate regions of India fell below 19°C during the winter months (Indraganti 2011, Singh et al. 2010, Hegde 2010, Dili et al. 2010).	- Little evidence of the use of heating systems. - Leaky buildings are unable to control heat loss.	− 2.12% of recorded deaths in the NCT of Delhi from bronchitis and asthma, 1.54% from pneumonia, 0.17% from influenza (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012). - In Delhi, 3.9% increase in mortality for each degree increase below mean daily temperature 19°C (lags of 0–1 days) (McMichael et al. 2008). - EM-DAT database lists 29 cold waves recorded between 1961 to 2015, resulting in 5268 deaths across India and 2 occurrences of severe winter conditions with 320 deaths (Guha-Sapir et al.).	Planned	6	6	6	1
					Urban villages	9	6	9	2
					Unauthorised	6	6	9	4
					JJ clusters	9	9	9	4
Particulate matter (indoor and outdoor)	Cardiopulmonary disease, lung cancer, asthma. other	- Monthly mean indoor concentrations of PM (from indoor and outdoor sources combined) were found to vary between 56–106 μg/m^3 and 152–201 μg/m3 for PM2.5 and PM10 respectively in two Delhi dwellings (Khillare et al. 2004). - A study in 14 residential dwellings in neighbouring Agra found a six-month (between October and March) mean of 135–173 μg/m3 for PM2.5 (Massey et al. 2009). These concentrations are far higher than values in outdoor air quality guidance provided by the WHO (WHO 2010) for PM2.5 (maximum annual mean of 10 μg/m3 and 24-hour mean of 25 μg/m3) and PM10 (maximum annual mean of 20 μg/m3 and 24-hour mean of 50 μg/m3). among men and low-income groups (Rani et al. 2003). - Indoor sources from cooking. Lighting and heating can also contribute to PM levels.	- Poor-quality structures with very permeable envelopes in urban/rural villages and in JJ settlements put occupants most at risk. - Tighter dwellings and those utilising air-conditioning systems where windows remain closed, such as in the planned settlements, will inhibit the ingress of outdoor pollutants. - 20% of occupants, mainly in JJ clusters, do not have separate kitchens (Government of India 2011), and most dwellings do not have ventilation systems for effective removal of pollutants during cooking times (e.g. through a chimney or an extract fan). - Smoking indoors significantly influences indoor PM levels (Slezakova et al. 2009), and smoking rates in India are high (30% of those aged 15 or higher), especially among men and low-income groups (Rani et al. 2003).	- Smith estimated the total annual number of premature deaths from indoor air pollution among children below the age of five and adult women is between 400,000 and 550,000 in India (Smith 2000). - 2.12% of recorded deaths from bronchitis and asthma, 6.16% from cancer, 11.21% from heart diseases and heart attacks in the NCT of Delhi (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012). - SPM levels found to be significant to asthma prevalence amongst children in Delhi households (Kumar et al. 2015). - Self-reported health problems as result from indoor air pollution included acute respiratory infections (p-value < 0.001), throat, eye and skin infections (p-value = 0.02), asthma (0.005)	Planned	12	6	12	2
					Urban villages	12	9	12	4
					Unauthorised	9	12	16	9
					JJ clusters	16	16	16	9
Asbestos	Pleural and lung cancer, mesothelioma, asbestosis	- Up to 11% of dwellings in Delhi (Government of India 2011) use asbestos sheets as the predominant material of the roof. If these materials are damaged in any way, they release fibres that are dangerous for health.	- The use of asbestos sheets is most likely in the low-income JJ clusters settlements, where roofing materials are more diverse (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009).	6.16% recorded deaths from cancer in the NCT of Delhi (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	3	3	4	1
					Urban villages	1	3	6	1
					Unauthorised	3	3	12	1
					JJ clusters	6	6	16	1
Biocides	Dependent on biocide	Insufficient data	Insufficient data	Insufficient data	Planned	2	2	2	1
					Urban villages	2	2	2	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	4	1
					JJ clusters	2	2	4	1
CO and combustion products (indoor and outdoor) (NOx, NO2 SO2)	Headaches, nausea, damage of airway linings, bronchitis, death	- Indoor concentrations of CO, SO2, NOx, and NO2 measured in neighbouring Agra were found to be below maximum values given in standards produced by India’s Central Pollution Control Board (Lawrence et al. 2005). - Almost all dwellings in Delhi use LPG, oil, and solid fuels containing carbon for cooking and 0.7% of dwellings use kerosene, other oil, or ‘any other’ type of fuel for lighting (Government of India 2011). These fuels are sources of PM, NO2, SO2, and CO in the case of incomplete combustion.	− 20% of occupants, mainly in JJ clusters, do not have separate kitchens (Government of India 2011), and most dwellings do not have ventilation systems for effective removal of pollutants during cooking times (e.g. through a chimney or an extract fan).	2.12% of recorded deaths from bronchitis and asthma in the NCT of Delhi (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012) - NO2 and SO2 found insignificant to asthma prevalence amongst children in Delhi households (Kumar et al. 2015).	Planned	4	3	4	1
					Urban villages	4	4	6	1
					Unauthorised	4	4	9	2
					JJ clusters	4	6	16	2
Uncombusted LPG	Asphyxiation	- The use of LPG also presents a risk as it may escape uncombusted into a dwelling due to defects in the installation or appliance.	- Uncombusted LPG could be	Insufficient data	Planned	2	3	4	1
					Urban villages	4	3	4	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	9	1
					JJ clusters	2	3	9	1
Lead	Neural development and other effects	- Pb elements found in the characterization of ambient PM2.5 (Khillare et al. 2004, Pant et al. 2015), with maximum concentrations up to 2.51 μg/m^3 in a pollution hotspot (Pant et al. 2015) - Indoor/outdoor ratios of Pb concentration found to be 0.91–0.97 for two sites in Delhi (Khillare et al. 2004), with higher indoor concentrations correlated to road proximity (Kumar 2001).	Refer to housing modifiers for particulate matter	Insufficient data	Planned	2	2	4	1
					Urban villages	4	2	4	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	6	2
					JJ clusters	4	4	6	2
Radon	Lung cancer	- One study found indoor radon levels to be below an action level of 200 Bq/m3 (based on recommendations in from the International Commission on Radiological Protection^2) in Delhi (College 2012),	- Ventilation will further impact radon levels, more research is needed to fully assess this issue across a range of dwelling types.	6.16% recorded deaths from cancer in the NCT of Delhi (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012)	Planned	3	3	4	1
					Urban villages	3	3	4	1
					Unauthorised	3	3	6	2
					JJ clusters	3	3	6	2
VOCs	Allergic reactions, headaches, nausea, drowsiness	- High concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in ambient air found in Delhi (Srivastava and Majumdar 2010).	- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) may be found in a variety of materials in the home, with newly built dwellings most likely to be most affected, due to the higher emission rates of VOCs in any new materials such as carpet and paint. - For exposure outdoor refer to housing modifiers for particulate matter	Insufficient data	Planned	2	2	4	2
					Urban villages	2	2	2	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	2	1
					JJ clusters	2	2	2	1
Psychological impacts: Space, security, light & noise
Overcrowding	Increased heart rate and irritability. Increased hygiene risks, accidents, and contagious disease	- Delhi dwellings are at severe risk of overcrowding with a most common occupancy of 6–8 people (26%, (Government of India 2011)) combined with most commonly only one room (32%, (Government of India 2011)).	- Overcrowding has been reported in both the urban/rural villages and JJ cluster settlements (Ishtiyaq and Kumar 2011, Mitchell 2010).	- Overcrowding self-reported to have significant effect on: other common diseases (including headache, nausea, fever and vomiting) (p-value = 0.05); acute respiratory conditions (p-value <0.001); asthma (p-value = 0.03) and tuberculosis (p-value <0.001).	Planned	2	2	4	1
					Urban villages	6	6	9	2
					Unauthorised	6	6	9	4
					JJ clusters	6	8	9	6
Entry by intruders	Stress, injuries	- In 2012, there were 1715 recorded burglaries, up by 20% on the previous year; however, this number appears to fairly low compared to the number of households in Delhi. We assume it likely that many crimes go unrecorded, and there is a high risk of burglary in Delhi households, which could lead to anxiety or injury, in the case of aggregated burglary, to occupants	Insufficient data	Insufficient data	Planned	2	2	2	2
					Urban villages	2	2	6	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	4	1
					JJ clusters	4	4	6	1
Inadequate lighting	Depression, eye strain	- Inadequate lighting is likely to be an issue, especially during hot periods where curtains are kept drawn to keep the heat out. At times of power cuts and low voltage, lighting levels may fluctuate.	- Studies in an urban village noted inadequate daylight levels and reliance on artificial lighting (Kumar Soni 2011).	Insufficient data	Planned	1	1	2	1
					Urban villages	2	2	6	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	6	2
					JJ clusters	3	3	6	2
Noise	Irritability, sleep disturbance, headache	- Noise is also likely to be an issue due to overcrowding, high population, dense housing infrastructure, and a high volume of traffic.	Insufficient data	A study relating noise pollution to self-reported human health conditions in Delhi (Firdaus and Ahmad 2010) in both a high-density area and a low-density area found a range of adverse health effects including nausea, rise in blood pressure, and depression as a result of factors including vehicles, generators, and household industries.	Planned	2	2	4	1
					Urban villages	4	4	6	2
					Unauthorised	4	4	6	1
					JJ clusters	6	4	6	3
Infections: Hygiene, sanitation & water supply
Vector-borne disease	Malaria, Dengue fever, Japan	- Vector-borne disease is infections transmitted by the bite of infected arthropod species, such as mosquitoes, ticks, triatomine bugs, sandflies, and blackflies. In India, these risks include: Malaria, Dengue, Lymphatic Filariasis, Kala-azar, Japanese Encephalitis and Chikungunya	- Uncontrollable ventilation, over-occupancy, and inadequate sanitation systems in JJ clusters and urban/rural village dwellings make them particularly vulnerable to the spread of vector-borne diseases (VBDs). – Transmission by direct contact with an infected individual or contaminated surface could be exacerbated in overcrowded dwellings. -Airborne pathogens would be strongly influenced by overcrowding and ventilation rate, with a possible dependence on indoor air conditions like RH and temperature (Li et al. 2007).	- The major VBDs in India and their estimated health burdens in 2008 were; malaria (1,524,939 cases with 935 deaths), dengue (12,561 cases with 80 deaths), chikungunya (2,461–95,091 cases), filariasis (26,702 cases), Japanese encephalitis (3,839 cases with 684 deaths) and visceral leishmaniasis (33,234 with 146 deaths) (Dhiman et al. 2010), although, apart from dengue, these are more common in rural than urban areas. - 0.30% deaths recorded due to malaria (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	4	3	6	2
					Urban villages	6	6	9	4
					Unauthorised	4	6	9	4
					JJ clusters	9	9	12	6
Domestic hygiene, pests, refuse	Gastrointestinal disease, asthma, allergic reactions	- Waste collection in Delhi is inadequate; it is reported that around 30% municipal solid waste (MSW) is left uncollected on the street or in small open dumps, and where collected MSW is dumped in uncontrollable open landfill causing a risk to both environment and human health (Talyan et al. 2008). Waste can cause pest infestations, which can then cause allergic reactions or carry infectious diseases, further heightening health risks.	- Planned and unauthorised housing tend to have better-managed surroundings or are situated in gated grounds, lowering the contamination potential of some solid waste and some pests, such as feral dogs. - Urban/rural villages and JJ clusters often share street access and surrounding areas can be littered with waste and home to many pests.	− 0.02% of recorded deaths in NCT of Delhi from Rabies, 0.03% Diphtheria, 2.77% tetanus (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	4	2	4	1
					Urban villages	6	6	12	2
					Unauthorised	4	4	4	2
					JJ clusters	6	6	12	4
Food safety	Food poisoning, gastro-intestinal disease,	- Could be caused by contaminated food or inadequate storage of food. 56% of households are reported to have ownership of a refrigerator (N. S. S. O.-M. of S. & P. I. Government of India 2010b).	- JJ clusters are likely to be most at risk of food contamination due to the overcrowded dwelling with inappropriate storage space or poor hygiene from multi-use surfaces. Ownership of refrigerators lowest among low-income groups (N. S. S. O.-M. of S. & P. I. Government of India 2010b).	− 0.01% recorded deaths from food poisoning, 0.21% dysentery & diarrhoea. 0.03% diphtheria (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	2	2	4	2
					Urban villages	4	4	6	2
					Unauthorised	4	4	4	2
					JJ clusters	6	6	9	4
Personal hygiene, sanitation and drainage	Gastrointestinal disease, skin infections, dysentery	- Sanitation infrastructure in Delhi is limited – 40% of dwellings are reported to have open drains and 7% have no drainage arrangement at all (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009). - 21% of households are recorded to have no bathroom, with the majority of these households in low-income groups, 63% of households have exclusive use of a latrine, 22% have access to a shared latrine, and 9% have access to public latrines (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009), further suggesting facilities are limited.	- JJ clusters have the poorest sanitation infrastructure, often with no latrine facilities and substandard open drainage systems. Similarly, urban village infrastructure is haphazard, and as such, drainage and sanitation facilities can be poor (Ishtiyaq and Kumar 2010).	− 0.21% deaths from dysentery & diarrhoea, 0.48% from cholera. 0.03% typhoid, tetanus 2.77%, tuberculosis 3.34%, 0.03% diphtheria (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	2	2	4	1
					Urban villages	6	4	6	2
					Unauthorised	4	4	9	1
					JJ clusters	9	6	9	4
Water supply	Dehydration, gastro-intestinal disease, legionella	- According to survey data, the majority (84%) of households have access to tap water as a first drinking source, however, only 60% have exclusive use, with nearly 40% relying on shared or community sources (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009). - Delhi’s water supply can be contaminated, with outbreaks of waterborne diseases common (Ministry of Environment and Forests Power Government of India 2001), leading to further risk of illness.	- The low-income groups are most likely to suffer from an inadequate water supply, and JJ clusters are likely to be at the highest risk (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009).	0.21% dysentery & diarrhoea of all recorded deaths (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	4	2	4	1
					Urban villages	6	6	9	2
					Unauthorised	6	6	9	1
					JJ clusters	9	9	9	4
Accidents: Falls, electric shocks, fires, burns & scalds, collisions, cuts & strains
Falls baths	Lacerations, fractures, heart attack, death	- Poor design of bath or mobility of the occupant with heightened hazard.	- Little information about falls in baths but assumed to be the same in all settlement types where baths are available.	0.81% falls and drowning of all recorded deaths (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned
					Urban villages	1	1	2	1
					Unauthorised	1	2	6	1
					JJ clusters	1	2	6	1
Falls level surfaces	Lacerations, fractures, heart attack, death	- Level surfaces badly finished with large open drains causing heightened hazards.	- Likely to be the case in informally constructed rural/urban villages and JJ clusters.	0.81% falls and drowning of all recorded deaths (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	1	2	6	1
					Urban villages	2	2	6	1
					Unauthorised	4	3	9	1
					JJ clusters	2	2	9	2
Falls on stairs	Lacerations, fractures, heart attack, death	- Poorly designed stairs and stairs without hand-rails and barriers likely to heighten hazards.	- Likely to be greater in JJ clusters and urban/villages where stairs are often narrow and built on the outside of dwellings, heightening risks if falls occur.	0.81% falls and drowning of all recorded deaths (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	2	3	9	2
					Urban villages	3	3	4	1
					Unauthorised	4	4	8	1
					JJ clusters	2	3	6	2
Falls between levels	Lacerations, fractures, heart attack, death	- Poorly designed housing or inadequate provision/quality of barriers/rails.	- Dwellings are self-built and often open-fronted denoting a possibility of risk of falling between levels.	0.81% falls and drowning of all recorded deaths (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	6	6	12	2
					Urban villages	2	3	6	1
					Unauthorised	8	4	8	2
					JJ clusters	4	4	9	1
Electrical shocks	Disruption of normal heartbeat/respiratory muscles, burns, death	- The risk from electrical shocks could arise from unsuitable and badly-installed electrical fittings.	- More likely in low-income households such as JJ clusters, where domestic wiring is temporary or fixed to walls rather than in conduit casing with adequate protection (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2009).	1.36% deaths from accidental burns (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	6	6	12	2
					Urban villages	3	3	4	2
					Unauthorised	6	6	6	2
					JJ clusters	4	4	12	2
Fire	Burns, death	- Risk of fire could also result from the burning of fuels for cooking, lighting or heating in all settlements.	- In tightly packed JJ clusters or urban/rural villages, the risk of the fire spreading is higher.-	− 1.36% deaths from accidental burns (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012). - EM-DAT database lists 29 fire occurrences between 1978 to 2015, resulting in 1655 deaths and 50,090 people affected across India (Guha-Sapir et al.).	Planned	6	6	12	2
					Urban villages	3	3	4	1
					Unauthorised	6	6	12	2
					JJ clusters	3	4	12	3
Flames, hot surfaces	Burns, death	- The risk for burns from flames and hot surfaces due to cooking, heating or lighting.	- Risks could be higher in cramped dwellings, where the occurrence of accidents are likely to be higher. - 64.9% of all burn admissions were from families living in a single room dwelling unit and 34.3% of admissions from families having two rooms in the dwelling unit and floor level cooking resulted in the majority of accidents.	− 1.36% deaths from accidental burns. Burn deaths could also be a result of septicaemia 4.79% (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012). - In the Lok Nayak Hospital during 01/01/09 – 31/05/10, 731 out of 991 burn ward patients (73.7%) were flame burns (kerosene, LPG, petrol, coal etc.), 95% in the home. - 56.5% of LPG burn patients were discharged, 33.3% patients expired. 45.3% of kerosene burns discharged, 50.6% expired.	Planned	6	6	12	4
					Urban villages	2	2	4	2
					Unauthorised	4	4	6	2
					JJ clusters	4	4	6	2
Collision, and entrapment	Injuries, fractures, death	- Poor design of openings such as windows/doors and other features.	Insufficient data	0.02% deaths from other accidents (Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi 2012).	Planned	6	6	9	4
					Urban villages	2	2	3	1
					Unauthorised	2	2	4	1
					JJ clusters	2	2	3	1
Explosions	Injuries, fractures, death	- Use of canisters for LPG use could risk explosions.	Insufficient data	- EM-DAT database lists 10 non-industrial explosions between 1990 to 2015, resulting in 301 deaths across India (Guha-Sapir et al.).	Planned	2	2	4	1
					Urban villages	4	4	4	3
					Unauthorised	4	4	6	3
					JJ clusters	4	4	6	3
Position and operability of amenities	Strain and sprain injuries	- Poor design leading to physical strain associated with functional space and other features at dwellings.	Insufficient data	Insufficient data	Planned	4	4	6	3
					Urban villages	1	1	2	1
					Unauthorised	1	1	2	1
					JJ clusters	1	1	2	1
Structural collapse and falling elements	Injuries, fractures, death	- Poor structural quality causing whole-dwelling collapse, or of an element or a part of the fabric being displaced or falling. - The area is at risk from earthquakes as such dwelling should have an appropriate structure.	- The risk from structural collapse and dilapidation is likely to be higher in both urban/rural villages where there is a lack of maintenance and JJ settlements where structures are often self-built without formal standards (Ishtiyaq and Kumar 2011, Mitchell 2010).	- EM-DAT database lists 43 non-industrial collapse occurrences between 1967 to 2015, resulting in 2941 deaths and 150,000 people affected across India (Guha-Sapir et al.).	Planned	1	1	2	1
					Urban villages	3	3	4	1
					Unauthorised	6	6	12	4
					JJ clusters	6	6	12	3

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