Too busy or too far away? The importance of subjective constraints and spatial factors for sports frequency

Figures & data

Fig. 1. Conceptual model

Table 1. Sample descriptions (N = 776)

	%
Age, %
18–25	7.3
26–45	29.1
46–65	44.1
66–80	19.5
Gender, % female	54.3
Household characteristics, %
Youngest child at home < 4 years old	5.7
Youngest child at home 5–11 years old	10.2
Youngest child at home 12–17 years old	8.3
Living together with partner	69.8
Employed partner	48.3
Education, %
Low	11.1
Middle	36.5
High	52.4
Weekly working hours, %
0–18 h	7.6
19–35 h	22.4
36–40 h	21
>41 h	12.5
Not working	36.5
Health status, %
Bad/very bad	2
Moderate	19.4
Good	64.9
Very good	13.7
Sports frequency, %
1–3 times a month	8.6
Once a week	31.4
Twice a week	33.2
At least 3 times a week	26.7
Sports facility, %
Indoor sports facility	37.5
Outdoor sports facility	15.5
Swimming pool	7.9
Public space	39.1
Travel distance to sports facility, Mean (SD)
Indoor	4.3 (5.1)
Outdoor	4.1 (5.0)
Swimming pool	4.3 (3.7)
Public space	0
Type of sports, %
Individual workout in gym	17.8
Running	14.9
Other individual sports	10.3
Team (ball) sports	9
Exercise classes and dance	5.5
Racket sports	11.5
Swimming	7.5
Cycling/Race cycling/mountain biking	12.9
Walking	10.6
Sports membership, %
Organized—member sports club/union	27.2
Organized—gym/fitness centre	19.7
Organized—other	5
Unorganized—group	22.9
Unorganized—individual	25.1
Type of athlete, %
Recreational—novice	18.8
Recreational—experienced	60.2
Competition—pleasure oriented	6.2
Competition—achievement oriented	6.4
Don’t know	8.4
Flexibility of sports activity, %
Fixed days or fixed times in week	23.7
Fixed days and times	49.5
Flexible	26.8

Table 2. Principal component analysis of the constraints experienced by participants to participate in sport (N = 776), based on the Leisure Constraints Scale

Construct/item	Accessibility constraints	Physical/psychological constraints	Time constraints	Partner constraints	Skills/knowledge constraints	Sports facility/supply constraints	Total
Travelling takes too much time	0.85	–
I do not have access to transportation	0.82
I cannot afford it	0.75
There are no opportunities to participate in my sport near my home	0.75
Health problems are hindering me		0.85
I am not fit enough		0.81
I feel too tired to participate in my sport		0.64
Practicing my sport makes me feel tired		0.61
I am afraid of getting hurt		0.57
I do not feel confident		0.54
I experience time constraints due to work or study			0.9
I experience time constraints due to social commitments			0.88
I experience time constraints due to family			0.86
Participating in my sport does not fit with my timetable			0.62
Participating in my sport interrupts my daily routine			0.53
My friends do not like my sport				0.93
My friends do not have time to participate in my sport				0.93
I do not have anyone to participate with				0.91
I do not have anyone to teach me my sport					0.87
I am not skilled enough in my sport					0.82
I do not know where to participate					0.78
Sports facilities of my sport are poorly kept						0.93
Sports facilities of my sport are inadequate						0.9
Sports facilities of my sport do not meet my requirements						0.9
Sports facilities of my sport are too crowded						0.73
I do not like the supplied sports activities (trainings. lessons) of my sport						0.66
Eigenvalues	9.61	3.47	2.03	1.56	1.39	0.94
Explained variance, %	36.97	13.35	7.8	6	5.11	3.62
Explained variance, cumulative %	36.97	50.32	58.12	64.12	69.23	72.85
Cronbach’s alpha (based on standardized items)	0.89	0.82	0.87	0.92	0.91	0.93	0.93
Scale mean	2.25	2.5	2.83	2.1	1.8	2.62	2.35

Notes. Although the Leisure Constraints Scale of Alexandris and Carroll (1997a, 1997b) refers to ‘it’ and ‘sport’, we have chosen to refer to ‘my sport’. In the survey the actual name of the main type of sports of the respondent was filled in. Factor loadings < 0.5 are not displayed.

Table 3. Multiple linear regression on constraints factors (N = 763)

	Accessibility constraints		Physical/psychological constraints		Time constraints		Partner constraints		Skills/knowledge constraints		Sports facilities/supply constraints
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
	β (stand.)	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β
Constant (B)	−0.2	−0.48	0.02	−0.71	0.15	−0.89	0.07	0.6	−0.07	0.34	−0.35	−0.01
Neighbourhood liveability
Housing stock	−0.13*	−0.14*	−0.01	0.03	−0.08	−0.06	0.1	0.11	0.14*	0.13*	−0.01	0.01
Demographics	−0.05	−0.01	−0.13**	−0.07	−0.05	−0.06	0.02	−0.01	0.11*	0.05	−0.07	−0.04
Safety	0.16*	0.1	0.05	−0.05	0.03	0.07	−0.17**	−0.12*	−0.23***	−0.15*	0.04	−0.02
Nature	−0.04	−0.02	−0.06	−0.05	0.02	0.03	0.04	0.04	0	−0.02	−0.10*	−0.08*
Sports facility × distance (ref = public space)
Indoor 0–1.7 km	0.07	0.01	−0.01	−0.06	−0.07	−0.08	0.04	0.02	0.03	0.01	0.15***	0.14**
Indoor 1.7–4.5 km	0.13**	0.07	0.09*	0.03	0.02*	0.00*	−0.06	−0.06	0	−0.03	0.15***	0.15**
Indoor > 4.5 km	0.17***	0.1*	0.04	−0.02	−0.08	−0.09	0.01	−0.02	0.02	−0.02	0.17***	0.17***
Outdoor 0–1.7 km	0	0	−0.07	−0.03	−0.07	0.01	−0.01	−0.03	0.01	−0.05	0.06	0.07
Outdoor 1.7–4.5 km	−0.05	−0.05	−0.03	−0.02	−0.02	−0.03	0.01	−0.01	0.09*	0.04	0.03	0.05
Outdoor > 4.5 m	0.06	0.06	−0.07	−0.05	0.01	0.03	0.02	−0.02	0.04	−0.02	0.06	0.08
Swimming pool 0–1.7 km	0	−0.02	0.02	0.01	−0.01	0.01	−0.01	−0.01	−0.04	−0.04	0.12**	0.10**
Swimming pool 1.7–4.5  km	0.10**	0.09*	−0.02	−0.03	−0.03	0.01	−0.03	−0.03	−0.06	−0.05	0.13***	0.12**
Swimming pool > 4.5 km	0.02	0	−0.04	−0.05	−0.03	0.01	0	0	−0.04	−0.03	0.05	0.04
Sports membership (unorganized individual = ref)
Organized—member sports club/union		0.04		0.03		−0.02		−0.11		0.02		−0.03
Organized—gym/fitness centre		0.11		0.07		0.09		−0.01		0.11*		−0.02
Organized—other		−0.01		−0.02		0		−0.06		0.03		−0.02
Unorganized—group		0.01		−0.03		−0.02		−0.1*		0.01		−0.03
Flexibility of sports activities (flexible = ref)
Fixed days or times in week		0.02		0.02		−0.07		−0.03		0		0.01
Fixed days and times in week		0.03		−0.02		−0.12**		0.07		−0.01		0.02
Type of athlete (competition—achievement oriented = ref)
Recreational—novice		−0.03		0.22**		0.2**		−0.16*		−0.22**		−0.14
Recreational—experienced		−0.03		0.13		0.19**		−0.11		−0.07		−0.20*
Competition—pleasure oriented		−0.03		0.09*		0.02*		−0.02		0		−0.16**
Don’t know		0.08		0.15**		0.1		−0.15*		−0.13*		−0.03
Gender (female = ref)
Male		0.01		−0.11**		−0.01		−0.05		0.04		−0.01
Age (66–80 = ref)
18–25		−0.03		0.04		0.14**		0.02		0.09		−0.11*
26–45		0.04		−0.05		0.14*		−0.04		0.03		−0.05
46–65		0.02		–0.06		0.03		0		0		0.01
Education (high = ref)
Low		0.15***		0.13		−0.01		−0.11**		−0.19***		0.09*
Middle		0.15***		0.09		−0.03		−0.08		−0.12**		0.07
Household characteristics
Youngest child at home < 4 years old (no child or youngest child at home > 4 years old = ref)		0.02		0.05		0.16***		−0.12**		0.01		0.06
Youngest child at home 5–11 years old (no child or youngest child at home > 12 years old = ref)		−0.01		0.05		0.11**		0.01		0.06		−0.02
Youngest child at home 12–17 years old (no child or youngest child at home > 18 years old = ref)		0.06		0.05		0.11**		−0.06		0		−0.02
Living together with partner (no partner/not living together with partner = ref)		0.02		0.01		0.01		−0.02		−0.05		0.03
Employed partner (no partner/partner is not employed = ref)		0.01		0.01		0.07		0.07		0.04		−0.06
Weekly working hours (no work = ref)
0–18		0.02		−0.07		0.12**		0.01		0.02		0.07
19–35		−0.04		−0.05		0.17***		0.04		−0.04		−0.01
36–40		−0.04		−0.01		0.14**		0.02		−0.03		−0.02
>41		−0.01		0.01		0.25***		0.05		−0.01		0.04
Health status (very good = ref)
Very bad/bad		0.05		0.2***		0.06		−0.02		−0.04		0.07
Moderate		0.03		0.35***		0.11*		−0.09		−0.07		0.02
Good		0.03		0.19***		0.11*		0.02		−0.02		0.01
Adjusted R^2	0.04	0.07	0.02	0.17	0.01	0.24	0	0.06	0.02	0.1	0.06	0.08
P model	<.001	<.001	<.01	<.001	0.163	<.001	0.248	<.001	<.01	<.001	<.001	<.001

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .00.

Table 4. Ordinal Regression on Sports frequency (N = 776)

	Model 1		Model 2
	Estimate	SE	Estimate	SE
Threshold parameters
Sports frequency (at least 3 times a week = ref)
1–3 times a month
Once a week
Twice a week
Sports facility × distance (public space = ref)
Indoor 0–1.7 km	−0.79**	0.27	−0.87**	0.28
Indoor 1.7–4.5 km	−1.11***	0.27	−1.12***	0.27
Indoor > 4.5 km	−0.65*	0.27	−0.83**	0.28
Outdoor 0–1.7 km	−0.13	0.36	−0.04	0.36
Outdoor 1.7–4.5 km	−0.11	0.4	−0.09	0.4
Outdoor > 4.5 m	−0.11	0.4	−0.09	0.4
Swimming pool 0–1.7 km	−0.65	0.53	−0.43	0.54
Swimming pool 1.7–.5 km	−1.07**	0.41	−1.06*	0.42
Swimming pool > 4.5 km	−1.71***	0.45	−1.60***	0.46
Neighbourhood liveability
Housing stock	0	0.01	0	0.01
Demographics	0	0.01	0	0.01
Safety	0	0	0	0
Nature	0	0.01	0	0.01
Constraints factors
Accessibility constraints			0.24*	0.1
Physical/psychological constraints			0.14	0.09
Time constraints			−0.47***	0.09
Partner constraints			0.17	0.09
Skills/knowledge constraints			0.1	0.09
Sports facility/supply constraints			−0.13	0.09
Sports membership (unorganized individual = ref)
Organized—sports club/union	−0.62*	0.27	−0.64*	0.28
Organized—gym/fitness centre	0.15	0.27	0.2	0.27
Organized—other	−0.63	0.36	−0.63	0.36
Unorganized—group	−0.72**	0.21	−0.68**	0.21
Flexibility of sports activity (flexible = ref)
Fixed days or times in week	0.24	0.21	0.18	0.21
Fixed days and times in week	0.36	0.19	0.25	0.19
Type of athlete (competition—achievement oriented = ref)
Don’t know	−2.00***	0.43	−1.94***	0.43
Recreational—novice	−2.01***	0.38	−1.86***	0.39
Recreational—experienced	−1.54***	0.35	−1.45***	0.36
Competition—pleasure oriented	−1.08**	0.41	−1.22**	0.42
Gender (female = ref)
Male	−0.27	0.16	−0.26	0.16
Age (66–80 = ref)
18–25	−0.32	0.37	−0.23	0.38
26–45	−0.58	0.3	−0.5	0.3
46–65	−0.17	0.24	−0.17	0.24
Education (high = ref)
Low	−0.35	0.24	−0.39	0.25
Middle	0.14	0.16	0.08	0.16
Household characteristics
Youngest child at home < 4 years old
(no child or youngest child at home > 4 years old = ref)	0.51	0.34	0.08	0.35
Youngest child at home 5–11 years old
(no child or youngest child at home > 12 years old = ref)	0.24	0.26	0.09	0.27
Youngest child at home 12–17 years old
(no child or youngest child at home > 18 years old = ref)	−0.2	0.27	−0.36	0.27
Living together with partner (no partner/not living together with partner = ref)	0.04	0.18	0.05	0.18
Employed partner (no partner/partner is not employed = ref)	0.01	0.17	0.05	0.18
Weekly working hours (no work = ref)
0–18	0.42	0.33	0.68*	0.33
19–35	−0.44	0.23	−0.23	0.23
36–40	−0.25	0.24	−0.06	0.24
>41	−0.56*	0.27	−0.21	0.28
Health status (very good = ref)
Very bad/bad	−1.95***	0.56	−1.93**	0.57
Moderate	−0.71**	0.25	−0.73**	0.27
Good	−0.71**	0.21	−0.75**	0.22
Nagelkerke R^2	0.18		0.24
P model	<.001		<.001
Pearson Chi-Square Model 1	2358.81*		2262.42
Test of Parallel Lines	Test of Parallel Lines
−2 Log Likelihood: 1673.55	−2 Log Likelihood: 1631.86
Chi-Square: 154.56	Chi-Square: 150.43
Sign: <.001	Sign: <.001

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .0.

Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997a). An analysis of leisure constraints based on different recreational sport participation levels: Results from a study in Greece. Leisure Sciences, 19, 1–15. doi:10.1080/01490409709512236

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Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997b). Demographic differences in the perception of constraints on recreational sport participation: Results from a study in Greece. Leisure Studies, 16, 107–125. doi:10.1080/026143697375449

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