Performance-based selection of pathways for enhancing built infrastructure resilience

Figures & data

Figure 1. Variation of system functionality before, during and after a disaster (Joo & Sinha, 2022b).

Figure 2. Plan view of an archetypical reinforced concrete frame building (ID-2215) (Badal, 2020).

Figure 3. Illustration of performance and recovery assessment methodology.

Figure 4. Ground motion selection for (a) Design basis earthquake (DBE) and (b) Maximum considered earthquake (MCE) against corresponding conditional mean spectra (CMS).

Figure 5. Breakdown of expected losses of a baseline building model for DBE and MCE scenarios.

Table 1. Scenario losses, repair time, and recovery time assessment results.

Intensity Level	Model	Scenario Losses (%)			Repair Times (FEMA P-58)		Median Recovery Times			90^th Percentile Recovery Times
		SEL	Median	SUL	Parallel	Series	Reocc-upancy	Functional Recovery	Full Recovery	Reocc-upancy	Functional Recovery	Full Recovery
DBE (10% POE in 50 years)	a	3.2	2.2	6.9	11D	20D	0D	4.2 M	6.2 M	4.9 M	12 M	12 M
	b	1.7	1.0	4.1	2.4D	5.1D	0D	3D	5.4 M	3D	12 M	12 M
	c	3.2	2.2	6.9	11D	20D	0D	2.8 M	4.6 M	4.4 M	6.2 M	7.6 M
	d	1.7	1.0	4.1	2.4D	5.1D	0D	3D	3.7 M	3D	6 M	6.8 M
MCE (2% POE in 50 years)	a	14	9.5	22	1.9 M	3.2 M	5.5 M	9.8 M	11 M	14 M	18 M	18 M
	b	11	6.1	17	1.4 M	1.8 M	3D	9.7 M	10 M	12 M	17 M	17 M
	c	14	9.5	22	1.9 M	3.2 M	4.5 M	5.9 M	8.1 M	12 M	14 M	15 M
	d	11	6.1	17	1.4 M	1.8 M	3D	5.2 M	6.2 M	10 M	12 M	13 M

a = Baseline Model, b = Model with Improved Non-structural Performance, c = Model with Reduction of Post-disaster Delays, d = Model with Improved Non-structural Performances and Reduction of Delays, D = Days, M = Months, SEL = Scenario Expected Losses, SUL = Scenario Upper Losses, POE = Probability of Exceedance, DBE = Design Basis Earthquake, MCE = Maximum Considered Earthquake

Figure 6. Probability of (a) loss of occupancy at DBE, (b) loss of occupancy at MCE, (c) loss of functionality at DBE, and (d) loss of functionality at MCE, for various preparedness approaches.

Table 2. Role of impeding factors in post-disaster recovery.

Intensity Level	Model	Median Recovery Times			90^th Percentile Recovery Times
		Reoccupancy	Functional Recovery	Full Recovery	Reoccupancy	Functional Recovery	Full Recovery
DBE (10% POE in 50 years)	a	0D	4.2 M	6.2 M	4.9 M	12 M	12 M
	e	0D	4 M	6 M	4.8 M	12 M	12 M
	f	0D	3.2 M	5.2 M	4.9 M	6.8 M	8.2 M
	g	0D	3.8 M	5.8 M	4.2 M	12 M	12 M
	h	0D	4 M	6 M	4.8 M	12 M	12 M
	i	0D	4.2 M	6.2 M	4.9 M	12 M	12 M
	j	0D	3.5 M	5.7 M	3.8 M	12 M	12 M
	k	0D	5D	1.7 M	6D	3 M	3.7 M
MCE (2% POE in 50 years)	a	5.5 M	9.8 M	11 M	14 M	18 M	18 M
	e	5.3 M	9.7 M	11 M	13 M	17 M	18 M
	f	5.5 M	7 M	9.2 M	13 M	15 M	16 M
	g	4.2 M	8.9 M	9.7 M	9.8 M	16 M	16 M
	h	5.1 M	9.5 M	11 M	14 M	17 M	18 M
	i	5.4 M	9.5 M	11 M	13 M	17 M	18 M
	j	4 M	9.2 M	10 M	11 M	17 M	17 M
	k	10D	2.5 M	3.7 M	4.9 M	6.9 M	7.8 M

a = Baseline model, e = Model with no Financing Impedance, f = Model with no Long-lead Time Impedance, g = Model with no Engineering Mobilization Impedance, h = Model with no Contractor Mobilization Impedance, i = Model with no Inspection Requirement. j = Model with no Permits Required, k = Model with no Impeding Factors, D = Days, M = Months, POE = Probability of Exceedance, DBE = Design Basis Earthquake, MCE = Maximum Considered Earthquake

Table 3. Role of reducing post-disaster delays in recovery.

Intensity Level	Model	Median Recovery Times			90^th Percentile Recovery Times
		Reoccupancy	Functional Recovery	Full Recovery	Reoccupancy	Functional Recovery	Full Recovery
DBE (10% POE in 50 years)	a	0D	4.2 M	6.2 M	4.9 M	12 M	12 M
	l	0D	4.2 M	6.2 M	4.9 M	12 M	12 M
	m	0D	4 M	6.1 M	4.6 M	12 M	12 M
	n	0D	4.1 M	6.1 M	4.8 M	12 M	12 M
	o	0D	3.8 M	5.8 M	4.4 M	12 M	12 M
	p	0D	2.8 M	4.6 M	4.4 M	6.2 M	7.6 M
MCE (2% POE in 50 years)	a	5.5 M	9.8 M	11 M	14 M	18 M	18 M
	l	5.4 M	9.7 M	11 M	13 M	17 M	18 M
	m	4.9 M	9.6 M	11 M	13 M	17 M	18 M
	n	5.2 M	9.6 M	11 M	14 M	18 M	18 M
	o	4.5 M	9.2 M	10 M	13 M	17 M	18 M
	p	4.5 M	5.9 M	8.1 M	12 M	14 M	15 M

a = Baseline Model, l = Model with Inspector on Retainer, m = Model with Engineer on Retainer n = Model with Contractor on Retainer, o = Model with Inspector, Engineer, and Contractor on Retainer, p = Model with Inspector, Engineer and Contractor on Retainer and no Long-lead time requirements, D = Days, M = Months, POE = Probability of Exceedance, DBE = Design Basis Earthquake, MCE = Maximum Considered Earthquake.

Table

Component Name	Floor(s)	Fragility ID	Unit	Median Quantity	Dispersion (β)	EDP
Column and beam with beam on one-side	All	B1041.001a	EA	28.00	0.0	SDR
Column and beam with beam on both sides	All	B1041.001b	EA	52.00	0.0	SDR
Curtain Walls	1	B2022.001	SM	737.81	0.6	SDR
Curtain Walls	2–7	B2022.001	SM	639.83	0.6	SDR
Wall Partition	All	C1011.001a	LM	595.63	0.2	SDR
Wall Partition	All	C3011.001a	LM	45.03	0.7	SDR
Suspended Ceiling	2-R	C3032.003a	SM	408.48	0.0	PFA
Suspended Ceiling	2-R	C3032.003b	SM	408.48	0.0	PFA
Suspended Ceiling	2-R	C3032.003c	SM	408.48	0.0	PFA
Suspended Ceiling	2-R	C3032.003d	SM	408.48	0.0	PFA
Traction Elevator	G	D1014.011	EA	4.00	0.7	PFA
Potable Piping	2-R	D2021.013a	LM	750.49	0.7	PFA
Potable Bracing	2-R	D2021.013b	LM	750.49	0.7	PFA
Potable Piping	2-R	D2021.023a	LM	268.03	0.7	PFA
Potable Bracing	2-R	D2021.023b	LM	268.03	0.7	PFA
Sanitary Waste Piping	2-R	D2031.023a	LM	339.51	0.6	PFA
Sanitary Waste Bracing	2-R	D2031.023b	LM	339.51	0.6	PFA
Chiller	R	D3031.014a	TN	525.00	0.1	PFA
HVAC Sheet Metal Ducting	2-R	D3041.011c	LM	446.72	0.1	PFA
HVAC Sheet Metal Ducting	2-R	D3041.012c	LM	119.13	0.2	PFA
HVAC Drops	2-R	D3041.032c	EA	180.00	0.5	PFA
Air Handling Unit	R	D3052.011a	CM	2718.42	0.2	PFA
Fire Sprinkler Drop	2-R	D4011.033a	EA	200.00	0.2	PFA

EDP = Engineering Demand Parameter, EA = Each (per unit), SM = Square Metre, LM = Linear Metre, TN = Ton, CM = Cubic Metre/minute, SDR = Story Drift Ratio, PFA = Peak Floor Acceleration, R = Roof, G = Ground, HVAC = Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Table

Component Name	Floor(s)	Fragility ID	Unit	Median Quantity	Dispersion (β)	EDP
Brick Cladding	1	B2011.203a	SM	147.56	0.5	SDR
Brick Cladding	2–7	B2011.203a	SM	127.97	0.5	SDR
Stairs	All	C2011.001b	EA	3.00	0.2	SDR
Raised Access Floor	2-R	C3027.001	SM	1361.60	0.2	PFA
Independent Pendant Lighting	2-R	C3034.001	EA	30.00	0.3	PFA
HVAC Fan	2-R	D3041.101a	EA	2.00	0.0	PFA
Fire Sprinkler Water Piping	2-R	D4011.023a	LM	1191.25	0.1	PFA
Transformer/Primary Service Equipment	R	D5011.011a	KVA	75.00	0.5	PFA
Low Voltage Switchgear	G	D5012.021a	A	225.00	0.5	PFA
Distribution Panel	2-R	D5012.031a	A	225.00	0.5	PFA

EDP = Engineering Demand Parameter, EA = Each (per unit), SM = Square Metre, LM = Linear Metre, KVA = Kilovolt Ampere, A = Ampere, SDR = Story Drift Ratio, PFA = Peak Floor Acceleration, R = Roof, G = Ground, HVAC = Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Table

Component Name	Floor(s)	Fragility ID	Unit	Median Quantity	Dispersion (β)	EDP
Precast Concrete Panels	1	B2011.201a	LM	37.24	0.5	PFA
Precast Concrete Panels	2–7	B2011.201a	LM	32.30	0.5	PFA
Precast Concrete Panels	2	B2011.201b	LM	37.24	0.5	PFA
Precast Concrete Panels	3-R	B2011.201b	LM	32.30	0.5	PFA
Stairs	All	C2011.001a	EA	3.00	0.2	SDR
Raised Access Floor	2-R	C3027.002	SM	1361.60	0.2	PFA
Independent Pendant Lighting	2-R	C3034.002	EA	30.00	0.3	PFA
HVAC Fan	2-R	D3041.103c	EA	2.00	0.0	PFA
Fire Sprinkler Water Piping	2-R	D4011.024a	LM	1191.25	0.1	PFA
Transformer/Primary Service Equipment	R	D5011.013c	KVA	75.00	0.5	PFA
Low Voltage Switchgear	G	D5012.023c	A	225.00	0.5	PFA
Distribution Panel	2-R	D5012.033c	A	225.00	0.5	PFA

EDP = Engineering Demand Parameter, EA = Each (per unit), SM = Square Metre, LM = Linear Metre, KVA = Kilovolt Ampere, A = Ampere, SDR = Story Drift Ratio, PFA = Peak Floor Acceleration, R = Roof, G = Ground, HVAC = Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Table

Options for Resilience Enhancement	Model	Specifications
Major options (Increase system robustness, Control delays, Combine pre-disaster preparedness and post-disaster management strategies)	a	Baseline model with typical occupancy non-structural components
	b	Non-structural components with improved performance characteristics
	c	Similar to model ‘a’, with control on different post-disaster impedances
	d	Model incorporating non-structural performance improvements, reduction of post-disaster delays, allowing temporary repairs and, managing surge in demand efficiently.
Elimination of post-disaster impeding factors in recovery (w.r.t baseline model ‘a’)	e	Zero delay due to unavailability of finance for post-event repair works
	f	Components with long-lead time are assumed not to hinder the recovery process
	g	Zero delay arising from engineering mobilization is assumed
	h	Zero delay arising from contractor mobilization is assumed
	i	Model assuming repairs can start immediately without inspection requirement.
	j	Model assuming repair designs by carried out by engineers do not require separate permitting.
	k	Ideal case post-disaster scenario considering all the factors individually assumed in models ‘e’ to ‘j’
Strategic options to reduce delays in the post-disaster phase (w.r.t baseline model ‘a’)	l	Building performance model assuming having inspector on retainer to help quickly initiate required repair activities
	m	Model assuming engineer on retainer to reduce delays in engineering mobilization
	n	Assumption to have a contractor on retainer to help reduce delays arising from contractor mobilization
	o	Model with inspector, engineer, and contractor on retainer
	p	Model with inspector, engineer, and contractor on retainer and assuming no long-lead time is required for any component.
Availability of Cash on Hand (COH) or pre-arranged line of credit	q	Baseline model with COH = 0.1%
	r	Baseline model with COH = 0.2%
	s	Baseline model with COH = 0.5%
	t	Baseline model with COH = 1.0%
	u	Baseline model with COH = 1.5%
	v	Baseline model with COH = 2.0%
	w	Baseline model with COH = 3.0%
	x	Baseline model with COH = 4.0%
	y	Baseline model with COH = 5.0%
	z	Baseline model with COH = 10%
	aa	Baseline model with COH = 15%
	ab	Baseline model with COH = 20%
Other factors to accelerate regain of occupancy or functionality	ac	Model allowing clean-up and temporary and local stabilization repairs for faster regain of occupancy or functionality
	ad	Model allowing a fire watch to be sufficient for post-disaster occupancy or functionality
	ae	Model assuming no surge in demand of labour and material or its efficient management in the post-disaster phase
	af	Model with insurance as a source of funding

Joo, M. R., & Sinha, R. (2022b). Functional recovery and performance-based earthquake engineering. National Conference on Resilient Infrastructure (NCRI). Kerala, India.

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Badal, P. S. (2020). A Framework for Multi-Objective Performance-Based Seismic Design of RC Frame Buildings [ PhD Thesis]. Indian Institute of Technology Bombay.

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