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Methods, Models, and GIS

Using Internal Migration to Estimate the Causal Effect of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Context on Health: A Longitudinal Analysis, England, 1995–2008

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Pages 1266-1278 | Received 01 Oct 2016, Accepted 01 Mar 2017, Published online: 02 Jun 2017
 

Abstract

There is long-standing evidence for the existence of geographical inequalities in health. Multiple conceptual frameworks have been proposed to explain why such patterns persist. The methodological design for these studies is often not appropriate for identifying causal effects of neighborhood context, however. It is possible that findings that show the importance of neighborhoods could be subject to confounding of individual-level factors, neighborhood sorting effects (i.e., health-selective migration), or both. We present an approach to investigating neighborhood-level factors that provides a stronger examination for causal effects, as well as addressing issues of confounding and sorting. We use individual-level data from the British Household Panel Survey (1995–2008). Individuals were grouped into quintiles based on the median house price of an individual's lower super output area as our measure of neighborhood socioeconomic context. Multivariate propensity scores were used to match individuals to control for confounding factors, and logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between destination of migration and risk of poor health (up to ten years following migration). Initially, we found some evidence that poorer neighborhoods were associated with an increased risk of poor health. Following controlling for an individual's health status prior to migration, the influence of neighborhood socioeconomic context was statistically nonsignificant. Our findings suggest that health-selective migration might help to explain the association between neighborhood-level factors and individual-level health. Our study design appears useful for both identifying causal effects of neighborhoods and accounting for health-selective migration.

已有长期的证据, 证明健康存在着地理不均。至今已提出众多的概念架构, 用来解释此般模式为何仍持续存在。但这些研究的方法设计, 却经常不适用于指认邻里脉络的因果效应。显示出邻里重要性的研究发现, 有可能会受到混淆个人层级因素与邻里归类效应 (例如在健康上进行筛选的移民) 之影响, 抑或同时受到两者影响。我们提出对因果效益提供更强健的检视之探讨邻里层级因素的方法, 并应对混淆和归类的问题。我们运用英国家户面板调查 (1995 年至 2008 年) 的个人层级数据。我们根据个人的较低超级产出区域的中位数房价, 将个人分成五个群体, 作为我们对邻里社经脉络的评量。我们运用多变量倾向评分来配对个人, 以控制混淆因素, 并运用罗吉特迴归模型, 评估移民目的地和健康不佳的风险之间的关联性 (截至移民后的十年)。我们最初发现若干证据, 证明较穷困的邻里, 与增加的健康不佳风险相关。在控制移民前的个人健康状态之后, 邻里的社经脉络之影响在统计上并不显着。我们的发现主张, 在健康上进行筛选的移民或许有助于解释邻里层级因素和个人层级健康之间的关联性。我们的研究设计, 同时对于指认邻里的因果效应和考量在健康上进行筛选的移民皆有所助益。

Hay evidencia de vieja data de la existencia de desigualdades geográficas en salud. Se han propuesto múltiples marcos conceptuales para tratar de explicar por qué persisten tales patrones. Sin embargo, el diseño metodológico de estos estudios con frecuencia no es apropiado para identificar los efectos causales del contexto vecinal. Es posible que los hallazgos que muestran la importancia de los vecindarios podrían estar sujetos a confusión de los factores de nivel individual, la clasificación vecinal de los efectos (i.e., la migración selectiva por salud), o ambos. Presentamos un enfoque para investigar los factores de nivel vecinal que provee un examen más fuerte de los efectos causales, al tiempo que enfrenta problemas de confusión y clasificación. Utilizamos datos a nivel individual de la Encuesta del Panel Británico de Hogares (1995–2008). Los individuos se agruparon en quintiles basados en la media del precio de la vivienda del área de salida de capa más baja de un individuo, como nuestra medida del contexto socioeconómico vecinal. Los puntajes de propensión multivariada se usaron para emparejar los individuos con el fin de ejercer control de los factores de confusión, y se usaron modelos de regresión logística para calcular la asociación entre el destino de la migración y el riesgo de mala salud (hasta por los siguientes diez años de la migración). Inicialmente hallamos alguna evidencia de que los vecindarios más pobres estaban asociados con un incremento en el riesgo de mala salud. Siguiendo al control hecho sobre el estatus de la salud de un individuo antes de la migración, la influencia del contexto socioeconómico vecinal resultó ser estadísticamente no significativa. Nuestros descubrimientos sugieren que la migración selectiva por salud podría ayudar a explicar la asociación entre los factores a nivel de vecindario y la salud a nivel de individuo. El diseño de nuestro estudio parece útil para identificar los efectos causales de los vecindarios y para tomar en cuenta la migración selectiva por salud.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Mark A. Green

MARK A. GREEN is a Lecturer in Health Geography in the Department of Geography & Planning at the University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZT, UK. E-mail: [email protected]. His research focuses on understanding the determinants of social and spatial inequalities in health, with particular interest in obesity and physical inactivity.

Mariana Arcaya

MARIANA ARCAYA is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Urban Studies & Planning at MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139-4307. E-mail: [email protected]. Her research explores the dynamic relationships between geographic contexts, particularly neighborhoods and health.

S. V. Subramanian

S. V. SUBRAMANIAN is Professor of Population Health and Geography at Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Boston, MA 02115-6096. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests surround using multilevel models to understand the social determinants of health, particularly nutritional inequalities among children and adults.

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