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Articles

Gradients in Lake Effect Snowfall and Fire across Northern Lower Michigan Drive Patterns of Soil Development and Carbon Dynamics

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Pages 638-657 | Received 01 Mar 2017, Accepted 01 Jul 2017, Published online: 27 Nov 2017
 

Abstract

Soils and forest ecosystems vary predictably along a 145-km transect in northern Lower Michigan. In the east, Entisols support open jack pine stands. In the central transect, weak Spodosols have formed under oak–pine–aspen forests. In the Lake Michigan snowbelt on the west, strongly developed Spodosols occur beneath mesic northern hardwoods. We hypothesized that increasing amounts of snowfall, coupled with decreasing fire frequencies, promote soil development and enhance soil C dynamics at western sites. We also hypothesized that enhanced soil development facilitated greater proportions of broadleaf tree establishment, which in turn accelerates snowmelt rates and further facilitates soil development by enhancing deeper C translocation. Along the transect, we described, sampled, and characterized twelve soils. Soil development increases east to west along the transect, changing most rapidly at the inner margins of the snowbelt, near the coniferous–broadleaf forest ecotone. Coincident with strong soil development in the snowbelt is an increase in soil C storage and cycling. Depth profiles of C, 13C, and Fe- and Al-humus complexes all suggest that snowmelt percolation drives these patterns. Hardwoods produce and cycle more C than coniferous stands to the east and have thicker snowpacks. In the snowbelt, late-lying snowpacks limit spring fires, and large pulses of snowmelt water drive the fresh, soluble C from O horizons deeper, enhancing soil development and fostering ecosystem productivity. Although the current snowbelt, climate, and fire patterns across the peninsula might date only to ≈7,000 cal yr BP, they have nonetheless affected pedogenesis to the point that a major Entisol-to-Spodosol continuum has formed.

沿着下密西根北部的 145 公里横切处, 土壤和森林生态系统的变化是可预测的。在东边, 新成土维系着开放的黑松林场。在中部的横切带, 弱淋淀土在橡树—松树—山杨组成的森林下方生成。在密西根湖雪带的西部, 溼度适中的北方硬木下有着大量生成的淋淀土。我们假设, 增加的降雪量, 以及减少的火灾频率, 促进了西部的土壤发育, 并增进了土壤碳的动态。我们同时假设, 提升的土壤发育, 促进了阔叶木更大比例的生长, 从而加速融雪速率, 并透过促进更深层的碳易位, 进一步增进土壤发育。我们沿着横切带, 对十二种土壤进行描述、採样并分类。土壤的发育, 沿着横切带由东到西增加, 并在雪带的内部边缘中改变最为剧烈, 且接近结毬果—阔叶林的交错群落。在雪带中, 与强健的土壤发育同时而发生的是土壤碳的储存与循环的增加。碳、碳13与铁和铝腐植质的复合体之深度剖面皆指出, 雪带的渗透驱动了这些模 式。越往东边, 硬木相较于结毬果林场, 生产并循环更多的碳, 并拥有较厚的雪被。在雪带中, 较晚沉积的雪被限制了春天的大火, 而大量的雪带水脉驱动了从氧层更深处而来的新鲜且可融的碳, 增进了土 壤发育, 并促进了生态系统的生产力。尽管目前横跨半岛的雪带、气候和火灾模式, 或许只能追溯到校正过后的距今七千年, 它们仍然影响了土壤生成, 直到主要的新成土—淋淀土的连续体形成。

Como era de esperarse, los suelos y los ecosistemas forestales varían a lo largo de un transecto de 145 km en la parte norte de la Baja Míchigan. Al este, los Entisoles permiten el crecimiento de bosques abiertos de pino jack. En el transecto central, los Spodosoles débiles se han formado bajo bosques de roble–pino–álamo. Al oeste, en la franja de nieve del Lago de Míchigan, ocurren Spodosoles muy desarrollados debajo de arbolados norteños de madera dura. Nuestra hipótesis es que el aumento de la cantidad de nieve, junto con una reducción de las frecuencias de incendios forestales, promueven el desarrollo del suelo y fortalecen la dinámica del C en el suelo en sitios localizados al oeste. También formulamos la hipótesis de que el desarrollo realzado del suelo facilitó proporciones más grandes del establecimiento de árboles de hoja ancha, lo que a su vez acelera las tasas de fusión de la nieve facilitando aun más el desarrollo del suelo, al favorecer una translocación más profunda del C. A lo largo del transecto describimos, muestreamos y caracterizamos doce suelos. El desarrollo del suelo se incrementa de este a oeste, siguiendo el transecto, cambiando de manera más rápida sobre las márgenes interiores de la franja de nieve, cerca del ecotón forestal de coníferas–árboles de hoja ancha. Coincidente con el fuerte desarrollo del suelo en la franja de nieve, ocurre un incremento en el almacenamiento del C en el suelo y en la actividad cíclica. Los perfiles de profundidad del C, el 13C y de los complejos de Fe-humus y Al-humus, en conjunto sugieren que la percolación de la nieve derretida controla estos patrones. Los bosques de madera dura producen y ciclan más C que los arbolados de coníferas hacia el este, y tienen cubiertas de nieve más profundas. En la franja de nieve los relictos tardíos de la cubierta de nieve restringen los incendios de primavera, y los grandes pulsos de agua de fusión de la nieve arrastran a mayor profundidad el fresco y soluble C desde los horizontes O, acentuando el desarrollo del suelo y estimulando la productividad ecosistémica. Aunque la franja de nieve, el clima y los patrones de fuego actuales a través de la península podrían datar solamente de ≈7,000 años cal. AP, si han afectado la pedogénesis, sin embargo, hasta el punto de formar un continuum principal Entisol-a-Spodosol.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mike Luehmann who first suggested to us the idea of thresholds and feedbacks within this system. Mike Cook and Chase Kasmerchak assisted with lab analyses and graphics production, and Dave Cleland helped with fire frequency data. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful reviews.

Funding

We acknowledge support from the National Science Foundation (NSF; EAR 1053373) and USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (McIntire Stennis Project MICL06006). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed are, however, those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF. Support for Pavel Samonil was provided by the Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening (VUKOZIP-00027073).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Randall J. Schaetzl

RANDALL J. SCHAETZL is a Professor in the Department of Geography, Environment, and Spatial Sciences at Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests include soils and landforms of the upper Midwest and their synergistic codevelopment throughout the Quaternary.

David E. Rothstein

DAVID E. ROTHSTEIN is a Professor in the Department of Forestry at Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests include biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen in forest ecosystems, carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems, greenhouse gas emissions and soil carbon dynamics associated with woody bioenergy crops, and long-term soil productivity in managed forests.

Pavel Samonil

PAVEL ŠAMONIL is a Senior Researcher at the Department of Forest Ecology in the Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic. E-mail [email protected]. His research interests include soil evolution, disturbance ecology, and tree–soil interactions.

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