Europe against the people: does eurosceptic news exposure relate to populist attitudes? Evidence from a linkage study across nine European countries

Figures & data

Table 1. Regression models displaying estimates across nine countries.

	DV: populist attitudes
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Media exposure (not linked)	−0.066***	−0.058**
	(0.017)	(0.020)
Media exposure (linked w content data)			−0.171***	−0.068***
			(0.017)	(0.013)
Controls
Female	0.035	0.025	0.025	0.022
	(0.034)	(0.024)	(0.033)	(0.024)
Age	−0.002	0.001	−0.001	0.001
	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)
Education	−0.114***	−0.027***	−0.106***	−0.025***
	(0.010)	(0.007)	(0.010)	(0.007)
Country-fixed effects	✓	✓	✓	✓
General media exposure
Newspaper		0.026		0.024
		(0.013)		(0.013)
TV news		−0.025*		−0.024*
		(0.012)		(0.011)
Online news		0.016		0.004
		(0.008)		(0.008)
Social media		0.018		0.019
		(0.015)		(0.015)
Populist attitudes t-1		0.629***		0.624***
		(0.009)		(0.009)
Left-right		−0.027		−0.029
		(0.018)		(0.018)
Left-right^2		0.002		0.002
		(0.002)		(0.002)
EP party voting (ref. non-voter)
EPP		−0.035		−0.035
		(0.041)		(0.041)
S&D		−0.073		−0.070
		(0.042)		(0.042)
Renew		−0.065		−0.062
		(0.046)		(0.046)
Greens-EFA		−0.172**		−0.149**
		(0.057)		(0.057)
ID		0.244***		0.244***
		(0.061)		(0.061)
ECR		0.010		0.024
		(0.053)		(0.053)
GUE-NGL		0.021		0.029
		(0.051)		(0.051)
Other		0.066		0.075
		(0.052)		(0.052)
Satisfaction democracy		−0.074***		−0.077***
		(0.009)		(0.009)
Constant	4.207***	1.827***	4.166***	1.868***
	(0.097)	(0.104)	(0.097)	(0.102)
Observations	5910	5910	5910	5910
R^2	0.206	0.602	0.218	0.604

Standard errors in parentheses,; p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 2. Regression models showing detailed estimates for the Dutch setting.

	DV: populist attitudes
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	Wave 2	Wave 5	Wave 7	Wave 2	Wave 5	Wave 7
Newspaper exp	−0.012	0.070	0.099*
	(0.037)	(0.040)	(0.041)
TV news exp	0.059	0.050	−0.068
	(0.033)	(0.035)	(0.040)
Online news exp	0.004	−0.059*	−0.064*
	(0.025)	(0.027)	(0.029)
Newspaper exp				−0.628**	0.413*	0.063
(linked w content)				(0.225)	(0.195)	(0.107)
TV news exp				0.525**	0.167	0.060
(linked w content)				(0.183)	(0.358)	(0.152)
Online news exp				−0.260	−0.892**	−0.405*
(linked w content)				(0.355)	(0.294)	(0.175)
Social media exp	0.096***	0.037	0.120**	0.113***	0.041	0.111**
	(0.029)	(0.035)	(0.039)	(0.028)	(0.033)	(0.036)
Controls
Female	−0.069	0.022	0.078	−0.081	0.018	0.072
	(0.044)	(0.045)	(0.049)	(0.044)	(0.045)	(0.050)
Age	−0.002	−0.004**	0.002	−0.000	−0.004*	0.001
	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Education	−0.101***	−0.051***	−0.058***	−0.093***	−0.048***	−0.053***
	(0.012)	(0.013)	(0.014)	(0.012)	(0.013)	(0.014)
Populist attitudes t-1		0.489***	0.607***		0.489***	0.600***
		(0.021)	(0.024)		(0.021)	(0.024)
Left-right	−0.088*	0.053	−0.039	−0.096*	0.046	−0.045
	(0.044)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.044)	(0.047)	(0.048)
Left-right^2	0.010*	−0.002	0.004	0.010*	−0.002	0.005
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
EP party voting (ref. non-voter)
EPP	−0.053	−0.086	−0.076	−0.024	−0.072	−0.066
	(0.089)	(0.093)	(0.095)	(0.089)	(0.093)	(0.096)
S&D	−0.434***	−0.189	−0.054	−0.391***	−0.175	−0.048
	(0.104)	(0.104)	(0.085)	(0.103)	(0.104)	(0.085)
Renew	−0.508***	−0.233**	−0.183*	−0.483***	−0.227**	−0.197*
	(0.068)	(0.075)	(0.088)	(0.068)	(0.075)	(0.088)
Greens-EFA	−0.485***	−0.222*	−0.100	−0.460***	−0.217*	−0.089
	(0.099)	(0.100)	(0.117)	(0.099)	(0.100)	(0.118)
ID	0.417***	0.161	0.070	0.439***	0.168*	0.105
	(0.082)	(0.085)	(0.152)	(0.081)	(0.084)	(0.153)
ECR	−0.024	0.004	−0.010	−0.002	0.019	0.004
	(0.085)	(0.081)	(0.085)	(0.085)	(0.081)	(0.085)
GUE-NGL	0.085	0.078	0.106	0.101	0.092	0.114
	(0.085)	(0.086)	(0.106)	(0.085)	(0.086)	(0.106)
Other	0.279	−0.991	−0.226	0.350	−1.036*	−0.233
	(0.504)	(0.518)	(0.212)	(0.503)	(0.518)	(0.212)
Satisfaction democracy	−0.383***	−0.189***	−0.138***	−0.382***	−0.188***	−0.138***
	(0.017)	(0.019)	(0.021)	(0.017)	(0.019)	(0.021)
Constant	6.125***	2.624***	2.268***	6.032***	2.651***	2.319***
	(0.163)	(0.214)	(0.225)	(0.166)	(0.216)	(0.228)
Observations	2648	1637	1067	2648	1637	1067
R^2	0.363	0.548	0.616	0.366	0.549	0.614

Standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

For the wave 2 models, satisfaction with democracy is measured at the national level as the EU level measure is not available at this time point.

Table 3. Regression models with change in populist attitudes as DV (Netherlands).

	DV: change in populist attitudes
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
	Wave 2 → 5	Wave 5 → 7	Wave 2 → 5	Wave 5 → 7
Newspaper exp	0.052	0.104*
	(0.047)	(0.046)
TV news exp	0.006	−0.124**
	(0.041)	(0.045)
Online news exp	−0.015	−0.053
	(0.032)	(0.033)
Newspaper exp			0.362	0.006
(linked w content)			(0.228)	(0.120)
TV news exp			0.518	0.255
(linked w content)			(0.418)	(0.170)
Online news exp			−0.298	−0.199
(linked w content)			(0.343)	(0.196)
Social media exp	−0.068	0.074	−0.067	0.051
	(0.040)	(0.043)	(0.038)	(0.040)
Controls
Female	0.027	0.046	0.027	0.045
	(0.053)	(0.055)	(0.053)	(0.056)
Age	−0.002	0.006**	−0.003	0.003
	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Education	0.012	−0.009	0.012	−0.005
	(0.014)	(0.016)	(0.015)	(0.016)
Left-right	0.078	−0.039	0.075	−0.050
	(0.054)	(0.053)	(0.054)	(0.053)
Left-right^2	−0.004	0.002	−0.004	0.003
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
EP party voting (ref. non-voter)
EPP	0.063	−0.038	0.058	−0.051
	(0.109)	(0.107)	(0.109)	(0.108)
S&D	0.097	0.044	0.085	0.018
	(0.121)	(0.094)	(0.121)	(0.096)
Renew	0.114	0.043	0.110	0.014
	(0.086)	(0.097)	(0.086)	(0.098)
Greens-EFA	0.034	0.143	0.033	0.151
	(0.117)	(0.130)	(0.117)	(0.131)
ID	−0.032	−0.044	−0.033	−0.016
	(0.098)	(0.170)	(0.098)	(0.171)
ECR	0.048	−0.022	0.049	−0.013
	(0.095)	(0.095)	(0.095)	(0.095)
GUE-NGL	0.136	0.060	0.134	0.062
	(0.101)	(0.118)	(0.101)	(0.119)
Other	−0.628	0.081	−0.676	0.053
	(0.606)	(0.236)	(0.605)	(0.237)
Satisfaction democracy	0.014	0.009	0.014	0.010
	(0.020)	(0.022)	(0.020)	(0.022)
Constant	−0.495*	0.012	−0.513*	0.000
	(0.201)	(0.199)	(0.202)	(0.201)
Observations	1637	1067	1637	1067
R^2	0.013	0.023	0.015	0.014

Standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001