ASEAN centrality under threat – the cases of RCEP and connectivity

Figures & data

Table 1. Four theorized roles contributing to ASEAN centrality.

Role	Characteristics
Leader	Provision of intellectual leadership, implementation of stated aims leading to performance legitimacy
Convener	Provision of negotiation forums, agency as a neutral broker
Convenience	Provision of ASEAN Way and formal leadership, enabling other actors to lead from behind
Necessity	Formal leadership attained due to external partner interest in access to growing ASEAN market

Figure 1. ASEAN’s network in trade (source: author’s own elaboration).

Figure 2. ASEAN’s network in connectivity (source: author’s own elaboration).

Table 2. Competitive connectivity initiatives by ASEAN’s external partners (source: author’s own elaboration).

Partner	Initiative	Budget	Type of Support
China	Belt and Road Initiative	No official budget	National project implementation, technical assistance
Japan	Partnership for Quality Infrastructure	$ 200 billion	National project implementation, technical assistance
South Korea	ASEAN-Korea Infrastructure Fund (planned from 2022)	$ 200 billion	National project implementation, technical assistance
EU	Connecting Europe and Asia	$ 70 billion	National project implementation, technical assistance
US	International Development Finance Corporation	$ 60 billion	National project implementation, technical assistance
India	Ad-hoc support	> $ 1 billion	National project implementation
Australia	Australia-ASEAN Development Cooperation Programme Phase II (AADCP II)	$ 39 million	Technical assistance
Germany	Ad-hoc support	< $ 10 million	Technical assistance