China’s dichotomous BeiDou strategy: led by the party for national deployment, driven by the market for global reach

Figures & data

Model A. The two-step dual decision-making model.

	Decision Maker(s)	Issues to be decided
Step One	Top Party leadership	General direction of foreign policy
Step Two	Executive branches of foreign policy administration	Specific foreign policies

Model B. Model B. The top-down single-step decision-making model.

Decision Maker(s)	Issues to be decided
Top Party leadership	Planning and guidance; resource allocation; architecture of national mobilization

Table 1. Promoting BeiDou’s global network.

Region	Form of Cooperation	Date and Location
MENA	China-Arab BeiDou Cooperation Forum	No. 1: May 2017, Shanghai
		No. 2: April 2019, Tunis
		No. 3: December 2021, Beijing (hybrid meeting format)
Central Asia	“Cooperation on BDS” under the China-Central Asia Cooperation Forum	No. 1: October 2019, Nanning, Guangxi province (during the 7th China-Central Asia Cooperation Forum)
		No. 2: October 2021, Lanzhou, Gansu province (during the 8th China-Central Asia Cooperation Forum)
Africa	China-Africa BDS Cooperation Forum	No 1: November 2021, Beijing