Training of load haul dump (LHD) machine operators: a case study at LKAB’s Kiirunavaara mine

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of regulations specific to manual LHD operators.

Country (reference)	Specific outcomes	Assessment criteria
South Africa (SAQA 2018a)	Specific requirements pertaining to the transfer of broken rock	Operational requirements (idling time, hazards, towing and speed limits, traffic control systems, environmental conditions, and refuelling). Emergencies (brake failure, fire to equipment, fall of ground, and collision). Importance of compliance and consequences of incompliance.
	Prepare to transfer broken rock	Personal protective equipment, area examination for any potential hazards, selection, examination, and transporting of tools, material, and equipment, and pre-use and after-start inspection.
	Transfer broken rock	Environmental conditions, ground conditions, and roadway conditions, correct use of tools and equipment, preparing the muck-pile for the safe loading, filling the bucket to allowable capacity, manipulation of control, and sequence of loading. Dumping includes bins, dump trucks, conveyer systems, ore passes, and spillage prevention. Interpersonal communication and teamwork. Consequences of non-adherence to safety, occupational health, and production.
	Perform post-transferring activities	Preparation and storage of tools and equipment, completing and submitting forms, checklists, reports, parking, securing, and locking out procedures. Consequences of non-adherence to the compliances of safety, occupational health, and production.
Australia (Australian Government 2022a)	Plan and prepare for operations	Compliance documentation, pre-start checks, hazard identification, environmental issues, adherence to emergency procedures, a site inspection for scaling, ventilation check, and erection of safety provisions.
	Operate LHD	Communication with other operators, equipment safety, equipment performance management, and end-of-shift information exchange.
	Load, haul, and dump material	Dust suppression, scaling down loose material, identifying misfires, safe storage, bogging according to plan, and road clearance. Confirm the type of material and bucket position, manage spillages, maintain the haulage site, and distribute dump material as required.
	Clean up the job site	Scaling, and cleaning the site.
	Carry out operator maintenance	Shutdown procedures and service.
	Carry out housekeeping activities	Cleaning equipment, cleaning and storing auxiliary service equipment, and maintaining a safe working environment by managing or reporting a hazard.
India (NSQF 2022)	Prepare Side Discharge Loader (SDL)/LHD/other loading machines for operation	Pre-operation checks and record details (logbook, shift handover).
	Carry out SDL/ LHD Operations	Start/ stop and drive the machine to the work area. SDL/LHD operation.
	Perform routine maintenance and troubleshooting on the SDL/LHD	Preventive maintenance, basic diagnostics, and troubleshooting,
	Follow health, safety, and environmental guidelines	Follow work-site health and safety measures, environmental guidelines, mine vocational training rules, and mine rescue rules.
New Zealand (NZQA 2018)	Describe the operational characteristics and performance of an LHD machine in an underground operation	Safety features, instruments, controls, operating procedures, attachments, and powered attachments.
	Describe safe work practices and conditions for operating an LHD machine in an underground operation	Gradient, speed, lighting, accessibility, ventilation, roadway conditions, roof, and rib security, compressed air, water, and electrical services.
	Check readiness and operate an LHD machine in an underground operation	Availability, capacity, walk-around checks, pre-start checks, post-start checks, documentation, Identify and report defects. The machine is operated based on job and machine specifications, manoeuvring, loading, lifting, carrying, dumping, grade surface, position objects, attachments, powered attachments
	Unload and shutdown an LHD machine	Following industry best practices and company procedures: the machine is unloaded, shut down and parked, identified defects, and reported; documentation is completed

Table 2. Summary of regulations specific to remote LHD operators.

Country (reference)	Specific outcomes	Assessment criteria
South Africa (SAQA 2018b)	Specific requirements pertaining to the transfer of broken rock by means of remote-controlled LHD	Operational requirements (remote panel, hazards, towing and speed limits, traffic control systems, environment conditions, emergency procedures (brake failure, fire in equipment, ground failure, collisions, and power failures), the importance of compliance and consequences of non-adherence.
	Prepare broken rock	Personal protective equipment, examination of the remote panel, area examination for any potential hazards, selection, availability of required tools and equipment, pre-use and after-start inspection, and consequences of non-adherence.
	Transfer broken rock	Environmental conditions, ground conditions, and roadway conditions. Correct use of tools and equipment. Preparing the muck-pile for safe loading, filling the bucket to allowable capacity, manipulation of control, and the loading sequence. Dumping and including bins, dump trucks, conveyer systems, ore passes, and spillage prevention. Interpersonal communication and teamwork. Consequences of non-adherence to safety, occupational health, and production.
	Perform post-transferring activities	Preparation and storage of tools and equipment, completion and submission of forms, checklists, reports, parking, securing, locking out procedures consequences of non-adherence to the compliance of safety, occupational health, and production.
Australia (Australian Government 2022b)	Set up tele-remote operation	Check transmitter functions, cameras, and receiver are installed, ensure communication, confirm visible warning lights, and ensure proximity device or barrier is operational.
	Conduct tele-remote operation	Monitor control room indicators for equipment and environment and feedback, constant control of remote equipment, assess ground conditions, pass on an end-of-shift operation to an oncoming shift, and proximity sensors.
	Carry out operator maintenance	Operator maintenance, park up and shut down procedures, service, and adjustment of equipment, visual inspection of equipment, and report faults.
	Conduct housekeeping activities	Cleaning equipment, cleaning and storing auxiliary service equipment, completing documentation and result
Canada (MTCU 2012)	Operate Scoop Tram-Remote Control	Identifying workplace hazards and responding to them; inspecting and scaling the workplace; performing pre-operational checks; starting up; conducting operational checks; performing preoperational checks on the scoop tram in remote control mode; operating, hauling, loading and dumping the scoop tram in remote control mode; shutting down the scoop tram in remote control mode.

Table 3. Simulator training offered by commercial companies and OEMs of LHDs as per references.

Focus areas	Mining equipment simulator providers (reference)
	Immersive technologies (Immersive Technologies 2022)	5DT technologies (5DT 2019)	Thoroughtec (CyberMine) (Thoroughtec 2022)	Sandvik (digital trainer) (Sandvik 2019)	Epiroc (RCS) (Epiroc 2022)	CAT simulators (Simscholars 2022)
Supported OEMs/models	Caterpillar, Komatsu, Sandvik	NA*	Epiroc Caterpillar Joy MTI Sandvik	LH517i and LH621i	ST7, ST14 and ST18	NA*
Control familiarisation	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Hazard avoidance	✓	✓	✓			✓
Brake testing procedure	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Engine management	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Operator productivity	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Site safety procedures	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Minimising unscheduled maintenance	✓		✓	✓	✓	✓
Truck loading		✓	✓			✓
Crusher dumping			✓			✓
Artificially intelligent traffic		✓	✓
Scenarios (rockslides, water pool and rubble spillages etc)			✓
Operator evaluation (feedback)	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓

NA* Information not available.

Figure 1. (a) Operator experience with loading at LKAB; (b) machine type; (c) semi-autonomous loading (SA); (d) manual loading. Images are available in colour online.

Figure 2. Training structure at LKAB's Kiirunavaara mine. Images are available in colour online.

Figure 3. What parts were included in the LHD operators’ training that you received? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 4. How long was the theoretical (classroom-like) part of the training? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 5. What part of the operators’ training was difficult? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 6. Operators’ satisfaction with simulator training. Images are available in colour online.

Figure 7. For how long did you drive with another person in the cabin? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 8. What parts of the training were different for semi-autonomous and manual loading? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 9. What is difficult to learn with semi-autonomous loading? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 10. What is difficult to learn about autonomous loading (based on training year)? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 11. Did you pass an exam when you completed your training? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 12. Operators’ satisfaction with overall training in general. Images are available in colour online.

Figure 13. If you had to remove something from the training, what would it be? Images are available in colour online.

Figure 14. If you could add something to the operators’ training that is missing today, what would that be? Images are available in colour online.

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