Mainstreaming ecosystem-based approaches into disaster risk reduction policies: a comparative study of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh

Figures & data

Figure 1. A Conceptual framework for assessing the integration of Eco-DRR in policy documents of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. ^aOur additional criteria, ^bMickwitz et al. (2009), ^cRunhaar, Driessen, and Uittenbroek (2014).

Table 1. Assessment grid for integration of Eco-DRR in DRR policies.

1 Priority
1.1 Acknowledgement
Are Eco-DRR issues stated as a part of policy background?
Inclusion of either one of the following keywords in policy background: “ecosystem” “ecosystem restoration”, “maintenance of ecosystem”, “biodiversity conservation”, “green infrastructure”, “ecosystem services”, “ecosystem-based adaptation”
1.2 Inclusion
Are Eco-DRR principles explained in the policy documents?
Conservation, restoration, and sustainable use and management of land, wetlands, ocean, and other natural resources strengthen our capacity to manage the risk of disaster and climate management. Restoration of the ecosystems Maintaining biodiversity and natural habitats Strengthening the sustainable use and management of ecosystems
1.3 Weighing
Does the policy give a higher priority to ecosystem-based adaptation compared to other measures?
The focus is on the relative priority given to ecosystem restoration, ecosystem services, ecosystem-based adaptation, and sustainable management, wherever applicable while acknowledging the interdependency between human well-being, ecosystems, and changing risk patterns.
1.4 Resources
Are adequate financial and human resources for the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to disaster risk reduction ensured/guaranteed?
Emergency fund Disaster Management Fund Budgetary arrangement Human resources
1.5 Reflexivity
Is learning over time encouraged based on reporting and valuation of policy measures?
Documentation and reporting mechanism of program activities. Feedback mechanisms Refinement of knowledge Research integration

Table 2. Integration of Eco-DRR principles in DRR policies and acts in Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.

Criteria	Nepal		India		Bangladesh
	Policy	Law	Policy	Law	Policy	Law
Acknowledgment	+	–	++	–	+	–
Inclusion	++	–	++	–	+	–
Weightage	–	–	++	–	++	–
Resources	+	–	+	+	+	+
Reflexivity	+	–	++	–	–	–

Table 3. Eco-DRR in policy and the act of Nepal, Bangladesh, and India. The figure in parenthesis indicates the page number of the corresponding documents.

Nepal
Type	1. Acknowledgement
Policy	1.1 The use of […] local characteristics and optimum utilization of local means, natural resources, knowledge, and skills is addressed [18] (MoHA 2018a)
	1.2 The mission of this policy is to substantially reduce the disaster risk and losses in environmental assets of persons, communities and nations and to increase their resiliency by implementing disaster risk reduction and management activities in a balanced way [15] (MoHA 2018a)
2. Inclusion
Policy	2.1 Establish Eco Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund from Federal to Local and community level [132] (MoHA 2018b)
3. Resources
Policy	3.1 Disaster management funds will be established at federal, provincial and local levels as per the law to mobilize the resources. [31] (MoHA 2018a)
	3.2 The federal, provincial, and local governments will allocate necessary budgets for disaster risk reduction and management programs to implement this policy. [36] (MoHA 2018a)
	3.3 Budget for the projects/programs on disaster risk reduction and management in sectoral Ministries and Departments". [191] (MoHA 2018b)
	3.4 Establish Eco Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund from Federal to Local and Community level. [132] (MoHA 2018b)
	3.5 Human resources will be developed for the Climate and Disaster Risk Assessment by conducting training". [111] (MoHA 2018b)
	3.6 Make a provision to allocate a minimum of 5% of the annual budget by all sectoral agencies for disaster Risk reduction. [130] (MoHA 2018b)
	3.7 Prime Minister Disaster Relief Fund Operation Regulations 2006. [33] (MoHA 2018b)
4. Reflexivity
Policy	4.1 Taking into account the lessons learned and experiences gained from the implementation of the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management 2009, the learnings and experiences of the Gorkha earthquake 2015 and recent other disastersfor reducing the existing disaster risks and preventing of new potential risks, this National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy 2018 has been prepared to build a safer, adaptive, and resilience nation from disaster risks [15] (MoHA 2018a)
	4.2 This strategic action plan takes into account the experiences gained from the implementation of the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management 2009, experiences and lessons learned from recent major disasters including the Gorkha earthquake, and initiatives on Climate Change Adaptation and Sustainable Development Goals. [41] (MoHA 2018b)
	India
1. Acknowledgement
Policy	1.1 Ecosystems are socio-ecological systems and managing ecosystem services is highly relevant for the purposes of disaster risk reduction [87] (NDMA. 2019)
	1.2 Promote the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures to prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerabilities to disaster [44] (NDMA. 2019)
2. Inclusion
Policy	2.1 Ecosystems of forests, islands, coastal areas, rivers; and the agricultural, urban, and industrial environment are also to be considered for restoration of ecological balances and sustainable development. Zonal regulations must ensure the preservation of natural habitats. [30] (NDMA 2009)
	1.2 Restoration of ecological balance in Himalayan regions and raising coastal shelter belt plantations in DM plans. The design of such shelters will be eco-friendly and in consonance with local culture. [30] (NDMA 2009)
Plan	1.3 Implementation of ecosystem-based approaches regarding shared resources, such as within river basins, mountainous regions, and coastlines [45] (NDMA 2019)
	1.4 Ecosystem rehabilitation or restoration entails a wide array of activities, including post-disaster clean-up, e.g. altering an oil spill, as well as replanting forests or mangroves. Restoring ecosystems following natural and human-made disasters can work to reduce the underlying risk factors and mitigate future disaster impacts [……] [88] (NDMA 2019)
	1.5 Healthy ecosystems not only play an important role in supporting recovery and reconstruction after a disaster but also in reducing future disaster risk. Yet at the same time, disasters also pose significant risks to the ecosystems and could pose threats to the populations of endangered species, disrupt wildlife conservation, or ecologically important habitats. The agreements on Sendai Framework, [….] bring disaster risk management and environmental professionals closer. It is important to also pay some attention to the environment, ecologically important areas, and wildlife conservation areas/ protected areas even though the approach to DRR will have to be quite different [….] [85] (NDMA 2019)
	1.6 It has, at its core, the integration of the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. [39] (NDMA 2019)
	1.7 Protected areas, ecosystems restoration and natural resource management that do not incorporate disaster risk reduction objectives represent a missed opportunity. [. .] Two key areas of environmental management for disaster risk reduction are: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Protected Area Management, and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. [87] (NDMA 2019)
	1.8 The following challenges of DRR have been discussed in some detail: a) Climate Change Risks b) Livestock c) Environment and Wildlife d) Cultural heritage sites, their precincts, and museums. [34] (NDMA 2019)
3. Weightage
Policy	2.1 Environmental considerations and developmental efforts, need to go hand in hand for ensuring sustainability. Restoration of ecological balance in Himalayan regions and raising coastal shelter belt plantations need to be incorporated […]. Ecosystems of forests, islands, coastal areas, rivers; and the agricultural, […] also to be considered for restoration of ecological balances and sustainable development. Zonal regulations must ensure the preservation of natural habitats. [30] (NDMA 2009)
Plan	2.2 Implementation of ecosystem-based approaches regarding shared resources, such as within river basins, mountainous regions, and coastlines. [45] (NDMA 2019)
	2.3 Ecosystems are socio-ecological systems and managing ecosystem services is highly relevant for the purposes of disaster risk reduction. [87] (NDMA 2019)
	2.4 Protected areas, ecosystems restoration and natural resource management that do not incorporate disaster risk reduction objectives represent a missed opportunity. Failures to identify the mutual benefits of environmental management, risk reduction, and climate change adaptation are lost opportunities to protect lives and promote human well-being [87] (NDMA 2019)
4. Resources
Policy	3.1 A National Disaster Response Fund may be constituted as mandated in the Act. The necessary budgetary allocations will be made as part of the Five-year and Annual Plans. [22] (NDMA 2009)
	3.2 National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF). [24] (NDMA 2009)
Policy	3.4 Besides the funds which are available through public funded schemes, efforts have also been made by the center to mobilize the resources from external funding agencies for vulnerability assessment, capacity development, institutional strengthening of response mechanisms and mitigation measures etc. [35] (NDMA 2019)
	3.5 National and State Disaster Response Fund [346] (NDMA 2019)
	3.6 The primary mechanism for funding DRR-related schemes and projects in India is through Public Funded Schemes at the Central and State level [350] (NDMA 2019)
Law	3.3 National Disaster Response Fund for meeting any threatening disaster situation. [22] (GoI 2005)
5. Reflexivity
Policy	National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) is a “dynamic document” in the sense that it will be periodically improved keeping up with the emerging global best practices and knowledge base in disaster management [31] (NDMA 2019).
Bangladesh
1. Acknowledgement
Policy	1.1 In recent times a cyclone and storm surge has changed its direction and is moving toward to south-western direction and causing substantial damage to the assets and the ecosystem, the Sunderbans in particular. [8] (MoDMR 2020)
2. Inclusion
Policy	2.1 Mapping and management into rural development planning and management of, inter alia, mountains, rivers, coastal floodplain areas, drylands, wetlands, and all other areas prone to droughts and flooding, including through the identification of areas that are safe for human settlement, and at the same time preserving ecosystem functions that help to reduce risks; [65] (MoDMR 2020)
3. Weightage
Policy	3.1 Mainstreaming disaster management into national and local strategies through incorporating nature-based solutions, inclusivity, and better use of science and technology will help us reach our goal [42] (MoDMR 2020)
	3.2 The Perspective Plans of the GoB (Vision 2021 and 2041) while progressing with the development efforts, also focus on the integration of environment and climate change considerations in the growth strategy [11] (MoDMR 2020)
4. Resources
Policy	4.7 Risk reduction programme used the historical data and climatic risk from the study and research to protect the investment and in building resilience […] [32] (MoDMR 2020)
Law	4.1 … early purchase in pre-disaster period for one or more years altogether from the cabinet committee concern to economic affairs to ensure supply, delivery or use of necessary materials or resources in emergency basis during disaster or post disaster situation [13] (MoDMR 2012)
	4.2 …the Government may form a fund and establish a central relief store and district relief store… [21] (MoDMR 2012)
	4.3 Executing method of ‘National Disaster Management Fund’ and ‘District Disaster Management Fund’ Management Fund and District Disaster Management Fund should be determined by the rules: Provided that, until the rules are not formulated in this regard, execution of those funds and fund money may be spent according to government financial rules and regulations [27] (MoDMR 2012)
	4.4 National Disaster Management Fund’ and ‘District Disaster Management Fund: a) Grant given by the government b) Grant given by a foreign government, organization, or any international organization with the approval of the government c) Grant given by any local authority d) Donation given by an elite person of local level e) Money received from any other legal source [20] (MoDMR 2012)
	4.5 ‘National Disaster Management Fund’ would be maintained under supervision of Disaster Management and Relief Division […] [20] (MoDMR 2012)
	4.6 Building effective data management and sharing information system can help to reduce the digital divide at every disaster cycle and can contribute toward both social inclusion and building resilience to future disasters [19] (MoDMR 2012)

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