An assessment of silvopastoral systems condition and their capacity to generate ecosystem services in the Colombian Amazon

Figures & data

Table 1. Main characteristics of the 12 farms selected for paddock composition and structure sampling.

Geographic location		Biophysical characteristics		Pasture dominant Urochloa species
Municipality	Geographical coordinates	Sampled area (ha)	Topography
El Doncello	1° 42’24.35” N	31.5	Wavy Land	U. decumbes
	75° 15’26.02” W
Florencia	1° 30’3.56” N	94.8	Wavy Land, Flat Land	U. decumbes, U. humidicola U. arrecta
	75° 39’44.54” W
Florencia	1° 29’1.12” N	73.5	Wavy Land, Flat Land	U. decumbes, U. humidicola
	75° 39’16.46” W
Florencia	1° 27’18.69” N	107.8	Flat Land, High terrace	U. decumbes, U. humidicola U. arrecta
	75° 37’59.51” W
Morelia	1° 17’52.692” N	13.4	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 38’29.291” W
Morelia	1° 18’11.376” N	2.7	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 38’32.783 W
Morelia	1° 20’3.264” N	9.0	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 38’9.959” W
Morelia	1° 22’24.78” N	9.5	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 39’43.776” W
Morelia	1° 19’48.324” N	4.6	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 38’27.995” W
Morelia	1° 17’59.46” N	21.2	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 37’55.559 W
Morelia	1° 19’5.52” N	12.3	Wavy Land	U. humidicola
	75° 37’2.46” W
Belén of the Andaquies	1° 14’30.83” N	50.5	Wavy Land, Flat Land	U. decumbes, U. brizantha
	75° 47’55.95” W

Table 2. Calculation of paddock structural characteristics.

Component	Variable	Formula	Unit	Index
Structure	CBH (Circumference Breast Height)	From the circumference at breast height, the diameter at breast height is determined by the following formula: $DBH=\frac{CBH}{\pi }$		DBH
		The basal area was determined from the diameter at breast height by the formula: $g=\frac{\pi }{4}xDB{H}^2$	m^2 ind^−1	Basal area
		The timber volume was determined from the basal area by the commercial height using the formula: $Tv=gx\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}$	m^3 ind^−1	Timber volume
	Total height	It was determined by measuring angles (tree apex, trunk base) with a distance clinometer using the following formula: $th=\frac{\left(\mathrm{\varnothing }2-\mathrm{\varnothing }1\right)}{100}xdistance$	m	Total height
	Commercial height	It was determined by measuring angles (height of the first branch of the tree, base of the trunk) with a distance clinometer using the following formula: $ch=\frac{\left(\mathrm{\varnothing }2-\mathrm{\varnothing }1\right)}{100}xdistance$	m	Commercial height
	The largest diameter of the tree crown and three crown diameters correspond to 45°, 90° and 135° from the largest diameter direction.	It is calculated from the average of the diameters using the following formulas: $Cd=\frac{{\sum }_{i=1}^{4}Cdi}{n}$ $Ca=\frac{\pi }{4}xC{d}^2$ where, Cd is the mean crown diameter, Cdi the crown diameter of species i.	m^2 ind^−1	crown area
		It is calculated from the crown area divided by the area of each paddock multiplied by 100 using the following formula: $C=\frac{\sum Ca}{A}x100$	%	Percentage of tree cover

Figure 1. Conceptual model of paddock system typology based on tree composition, diversity, and structure.

Table 3. Importance Value Index (IVI) computed for the tree species found in the paddocks, based on relative abundance RA (%), relative dominance RD (%) and relative frequency RF (%).

Species	Common name	RA	RD	RF	IVI
Bellucia pentamera	Pomo	12.83	6.60	6.65	26.08
Psidium guajava	Guayabo común	11.15	3.86	6.12	21.13
Gmelina arborea	Melina	5.30	11.86	2.43	19.59
Andira inermis	Cobre	3.73	5.27	3.80	12.80
Zygia longifolia	Carbon	3.50	3.75	3.06	10.31
Guarea guidonia	Bilibil	3.13	4.18	2.95	10.27
Ocotea longifolia	Laurel	4.90	3.84	1.37	10.10
Astrocaryum murumuru	Chuchana	2.27	5.18	1.79	9.25
Miconia elata	Chilco	3.51	1.60	3.80	8.91
Vitex orinocensis	Flor morado	1.91	3.65	2.95	8.51
Miconia minutiflora	Chilco	2.94	1.53	3.69	8.16
Cupania latifolia	Chiriguaco	2.47	2.64	2.32	7.43
Sapium glandulosum	Cauchillo	3.13	1.22	1.69	6.04
Hieronyma rufa	Chuguacá	2.51	1.46	1.90	5.87
Mangifera indica	Mango	0.67	3.57	1.16	5.40
Ficus yoponensis	Higueron	1.71	1.45	2.22	5.37
Myrcia splendens	Arrayan	2.09	0.88	2.32	5.29
Vismia baccifera	Lacre	2.59	0.64	2.00	5.23
Erythrina fusca	Pizamo	1.49	1.87	1.69	5.05
Attalea sp.	Guajo	1.06	2.46	1.48	5.00
Citrus limon	Limon	1.60	0.76	1.90	4.26
Piptocoma discolor	Boca Indio	1.45	0.92	1.48	3.84
Other species		24.06	30.77	41.43	96.06

Figure 2. Sample-size-based rarefaction (solid lines). The 95% confidence intervals (gray-shaded regions) were obtained by a bootstrap method based on 1000 replications. The expected coverage for the sampling effort in the study paddocks was 99%.

Table 4. Tree species composing 80% of cumulative abundance in each silvopastoral typology in livestock farms under the dual-purpose system in the humid Amazonian tropic of Colombia.

High structural complexity and highest tree species richness (HSCR)				High species diversity and tall trees (HDTT)				High species diversity and medium-sized trees (HDMT)				Structurally simple with lowest species richness (SSLR)
Nº	Name Scientific	RF	CRF	Nº	Name Scientific	RF	CRF	Nº	Name Scientific	RF	CRF	Nº	Name Scientific	RF	CRF
1	Zygia longifolia	0.13	0.13	1	Zygia longifolia	0.18	0.18	1	Bellucia pentamera	0.16	0.16	1	Sapium glandulosum	0.24	0.24
2	Guarea guidonia	0.13	0.26	2	Psidium guajava	0.13	0.31	2	Psidium guajava	0.12	0.29	2	Psidium guajava	0.23	0.47
3	Psidium guajava	0.12	0.38	3	Andira inermis	0.12	0.43	3	Sapium glandulosum	0.08	0.37	3	Bellucia pentamera	0.16	0.63
4	Bellucia pentamera	0.07	0.45	4	Gmelina arborea	0.09	0.52	4	Gmelina arborea	0.05	0.42	4	Miconia minutiflora	0.07	0.70
5	Ficus donnell	0.06	0.50	5	Ficus yoponensis	0.05	0.57	5	Ocotea longifolia	0.05	0.47	5	Astrocaryum murumuru	0.06	0.76
6	Ocotea longifolia	0.06	0.56	6	Erythrina fusca	0.05	0.62	6	Zygia longifolia	0.03	0.50	6	Vismia baccifera	0.04	0.80
7	Andira inermis	0.05	0.61	7	Elaeif guianensis	0.04	0.66	7	Astrocaryum murumuru	0.03	0.54
8	Miconia minutiflora	0.04	0.65	8	Vitex orinocensis	0.03	0.68	8	Andira inermis	0.03	0.57
9	Miconia elata	0.04	0.69	9	Ficus donnell	0.02	0.71	9	Guarea guidonia	0.03	0.60
10	Astrocaryum murumuru	0.03	0.72	10	Ocotea longifolia	0.02	0.73	10	Clitoria fairchildiana	0.02	0.62
11	Gmelina arborea	0.03	0.75	11	Iriartea deltoidea	0.02	0.75	11	Vismia baccifera	0.02	0.64
12	Rollinia mucosa	0.03	0.77	12	Bellucia pentamera	0.02	0.77	12	Ficus yoponensis	0.02	0.67
13	Ficus yoponensis	0.02	0.80	13	Attalea sp	0.02	0.79	13	Miconia elata	0.02	0.69
				14	Myrcia splendens	0.01	0.80	14	Piptocoma discolor	0.02	0.71
								15	Miconia minutiflora	0.02	0.72
								16	Erythrina fusca	0.02	0.74
								17	Bauhinia tarapotensis	0.01	0.75
								18	Tachigali sp	0.01	0.76
								19	Hieronyma rufa	0.01	0.78
								20	Inga thibaudiana	0.01	0.79
								21	Citrus limon	0.01	0.80

RF = Relative Frequency; CRF = Cumulative RF.

Table 5. Description of identified types, according to the used variables of composition, diversity, and structure.

			High structural complexity and highest tree species richness (HSCR)		High species diversity and tall trees (HDTT)		High species diversity and medium-sized trees (HDMT)		Structurally simple with lowest species richness (SSLR)
Component	Variable	Unity	Mean	E.E.	Mean	E.E.	Mean	E.E.	Mean	E.E.	p-valor
Composition and diversity	Species richness	Nb ha^−1	11.70 ±	2.53 a	5.56 ±	0.74 b	6.36 ±	0.51 b	2.85 ±	0.42 c	<0.0001
	Abundance	Nb ha^−1	87.70 ±	33.81 a	22.09 ±	4.81 b	28.61 ±	3.86 b	10.12 ±	2.18 c	<0.0001
	Shannon diversity		8.60 ±	2.77 a	9.77 ±	1.81 a	9.56 ±	1.36 a	5.92 ±	2.02 a	0.3301
	Simpson diversity		5.79 ±	2.53 a	7.54 ±	1.55 a	7.64 ±	1.02 a	4.08 ±	1.79 a	0.3104
Structure	DBH		24.65 ±	2.24 b	33.48 ±	1.43 a	20.58 ±	1.15 b	11.54 ±	1.45 c	<0.0001
	Commercial height	m	2.61 ±	0.32 b	3.44 ±	0.21 a	2.06 ±	0.17 b	1.53 ±	0.21 c	<0.0001
	Total height	m	7.62 ±	0.56 b	9.59 ±	0.40 a	6.97 ±	0.36 b	4.73 ±	0.41 c	<0.0001
	Timber volume	m^3 ind^−1	0.21 ±	0.08 b	0.46 ±	0.05 a	0.11 ±	0.03b c	0.04 ±	0.05 c	<0.0001
	Crown area per tree	m^2 ind^−1	70.84 ±	10.93 a	79.96 ±	6.23 a	48.48 ±	4.23 b	25.17 ±	6.19 c	<0.0001
	Basal are a	m^2 ind^−1	0.07 ±	0.01 b	0.12 ±	0.01 a	0.04 ±	0.01 b	0.01 ±	0.01 c	<0.0001
	Tree density	Ind ha^−1	40.15 ±	2.66 a	6.90 ±	1.73 c	10.15 ±	1.24 b	6.67 ±	1.64 c	<0.0001
	Timber volume	m^3 ha^−1	7.67 ±	0.65 a	2.28 ±	0.42 b	1.12 ±	0.34 c	0.36 ±	0.43 c	<0.0001
	Crown area per h a	m^2 ha^−1	2725.44 ±	134.66 a	509.82 ±	75.42 b	474.82 ±	48.10 b	143.50 ±	73.79 c	<0.0001
	Basal are a	m^2 ha^−1	2.22 ±	0.16 a	0.56 ±	0.11 b	0.43 ±	0.09 b	0.11 ±	0.11 c	<0.0001
	Tree cover	%	27.25 ±	1.35 a	5.10 ±	0.75 b	4.75 ±	0.48 b	1.43 ±	0.74 c	<0.0001
	IVI		3.32 ±	0.37 a	2.77 ±	0.22 a	1.63 ±	0.17 b	0.79 ±	0.21 c	<0.0001

Figure 3. Biplot constructed with structure and diversity variables: Species richness (Sp), Abundance (Ab), Shannon diversity (Sd), Simpson diversity (Simd), Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), Commercial height (Ch), Total height (Th), Timber volume per individual (TvInd) Timber volume per ha (TvHa), Canopy area per tree (CaInd), Basal area per individual (BaInd) and Basal area per hectare (BaHa), Tree density (IndHa), Canopy area per hectare (CaHa), Tree cover (TC), Importance Value Index (IVI). The plot shows the four paddock condition types identified: HSCR: High structural complexity and highest tree species richness, HDTT: High species diversity and tall trees, HDMT: High species diversity and medium-sized trees and SSLR: Structurally simple with lowest species richness.

Figure 4. Average number of tree species richness by paddock condition type.

Table 6. Provision of goods and ES recognized by 48 interviewed farmers for the main tree species (ordered according to their relative frequency) in the study livestock farms.

SPECIES	Cattle feed	Timber	Water protection	Shade	Nutrient inputs
Bellucia pentamera	X	X		X	X
Psidium guajava	X	X
Gmelina arborea	X	X		X
Andira inermis				X
Zygia longifolia		X	X	X
Ocotea longifolia		X		X
Astrocaryum murumuru				X
Miconia elata		X	X
Miconia minutiflora		X	X
Cupania latifolia
Sapium glandulosum				X
Ficus yoponensis				X
Vismia baccifera		X			X
Erythrina fusca	X	X		X	X
Attalea sp.				X
Citrus limón	X

Table 7. ES weight average per hectare based on average number of trees and basal area of the tree species occurring in the paddock type.

	Unit	Typology
		High structural complexity and highest tree species richness (HSCR)	High species diversity and tall trees (HDTT)	High species diversity and medium-sized trees (HDMT)	Structurally simple with lowest species richness (SSLR)	p-value
Average paddock area	ha	2.71	11.25	5.30	4.69	—-
Livestock feed	trees ha^−1	10.80 a	2.62 b	3.99 b	2.86 b	0.0001
Timber production		18.41 a	3.58 b	4.96 b	4.89 b	<0.0001
Protection of Water Sources		5.71 a	0.54 b	1.05 b	1.13 b	<0.0001
Shade for livestock		15.10 a	3.57 b	3.90 b	2.04 b	<0.0001
Soil Nutrient inputs		1.34 a	0.46 ab	0.39 b	0.91 ab	0.1047
Livestock feed	basal area ha^−1	0.50 a	0.17 b	0.13 bc	0.03 c	<0.0001
Timber production		0.74 a	0.23 b	0.22 b	0.05 b	<0.0001
Protection of Water Sources		0.17 a	0.06 b	0.03 bc	0.02 c	0.0005
Shade for livestock		0.82 a	0.35 b	0.22 b	0.04 c	<0.0001
Soil Nutrient inputs		0.04 a	0.03 ab	0.02 ab	0.01 b	0.1194

Figure 5. Relationship between the Index of Cultural Importance (ICI) and the Importance Value Index (IVI) in the four paddock condition types (HSCR= High structural complexity and highest tree species richness; HDTT= High species diversity and tall trees; HDMT= High species diversity and medium-sized trees; SSLR= Structurally simple with lowest species richness. Different letters indicate differences among means for IVI (capital letters) and for ICI (small letters) at p< 0.05.