Diagnostic approaches of pneumonia for commercial-scale biomedical applications: an overview

Figures & data

Figure 1. The lungs and chest X-rays showing inflammation leading to pneumonia. (A) The lung presented with inflammation (left) and normal right lung. (B) The chest X-rays showing the normal chest with clear lungs without unusual opacification, Bacterial pneumonia displaying focal lobar consolidation in the right upper lobe, and Viral pneumonia showing diffuse interstitial patterns in the two lungs.

Figure 2. Pathophysiology of pneumonia adopted from flash share at https://www.slideshare.net/hasnahnoi/pneumonia-38313892.

Figure 3. Pathogenesis of pneumonia disease using some bacterial pathogens and influenza as representative of bacterial and viral pneumonia pathogenesis. Adapted from Brundage (2006).

Table 1. Summary of some biomarkers used in pneumonia diagnosis.

Biomarkers	Mode of detection	Strength/Sn (%)	Performance	Limitation	References
SELEX (aptamer)	PCR	Not specified	Stable, sensitive, accurate and specific	Short half-life and early degradation	Sabri et al. (2019b)
TLS11A (aptamer)	Fluorescence microscopy	Not specified	Stable, sensitive, accurate and specific	Short half-life and early degradation	Hu et al. (2017)
Molecule1 and 8 (AMPs)	HMMER	100	Very sensitive, specific and accurate against HIV	Low datasets input into HMMER and proteolytic degradation of AMPs	Tincho et al. (2016)
LL-37	Culture sepsis	93	Very sensitive, accurate and specific	Proteolytic degradation	Gad et al. (2015)
Procalcitonin	Turbidimetric assay	92	Sensitive, non-specific and inaccurate	Implicated in other diseases other than pneumonia	Lippi and Plebani (2020)
C-reactive protein	Turbidimetric assay	94	Sensitive, non-specific and inaccurate	Implicated in other diseases other than pneumonia	Ling (2020)
Copeptin	Turbidimetric assay	Not specified	Non-sensitive, non-specific and inaccurate	Implicated in acidosis, hypertension and others	Slagman et al. (2015)
IL-6	Immunoassay	84	Non Specific, sensitive, inaccurate	Raised in a variety of inflammatory syndromes and has a short half life	Zeng et al. (2020)
mHLA-DR antibody	Immunoassay	Not specified	Accurate and specific but non-sensitive	Cross reactivity and low sensitivity	Leijte et al. (2020)

Note: Sn: sensitivity.

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