Anthocyanins and Proanthocyanidins: Chemical Structures, Food Sources, Bioactivities, and Product Development

Figures & data

Figure 1. Common chemical structures of anthocyanins.

Figure 2. Basic flavan-3-ol structural units of proanthocyanidins.

Figure 3. Common foods with high anthocyanin (a) and proanthocyanidin (b) contents.

Table 1. Bioactivities of anthocyanins

Bioactivity	Research design	Conclusion	Reference
Antioxidant activity	In vivo experiment, Lycium ruthenicum anthocyanins, mice	Improved activity of antioxidant enzymes and efficiency of free radical scavenging; reduced radiation damage	^[Citation64]
	In vivo experiment, red bean and black bean anthocyanins, rats	Anthocyanin-3-glucoside improved liver ischemia–reperfusion effects in rats induced by oxidative stress	^[Citation65]
	In vivo experiment, black currant skin anthocyanins, rats	Induced upregulation of the antioxidant response element (ARE) pathway	^[Citation66]
Anticancer activity	In vivo experiment, black bean skin anthocyanins, Drosophila model of malignant tumor	Inhibited autonomous and non-autonomous autophagy of tumor cells, affected the tumor growth environment, and inhibited tumor growth and invasion	^[Citation67]
	In vivo experiment, black raspberry anthocyanins, mice with esophageal cancer	Regulated the expression of cyclooxygenase 2, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and nuclear factor activated B cells to inhibit the tumor inflammatory response and tumor cell proliferation	^[Citation68]
Prevention of cardiovascular disease	In vivo experiment, blueberry anthocyanins and strawberry anthocyanins, healthy menopausal women	Reduced morbidity and mortality of coronary heart disease and myocardial infarction	^[Citation69]
	In vivo experiment, grape anthocyanins and bilberry anthocyanins, rats	Reduced levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides	^[Citation70]
	In vivo experiment, bilberry anthocyanins and blueberry anthocyanins, mice	Reduce the formation of atherosclerotic lesion	^[Citation71]
Bacteriostatic and anti-inflammatory effects	In vivo experiment, strawberry anthocyanins, rats	Inhibited the expression of inflammatory factors in mice and reduced the production of inflammatory substances	^[Citation72]
	In vivo experiment, Lycium ruthenicum anthocyanins, rats	Reduced the content of monosodium urate and helped to prevent gouty arthritis and colitis	^[Citation73]
	In vitro experiment, blueberry anthocyanins	Inhibited the expression of COX-2 and NF-κB	^[Citation74]
Neuroprotective effects	In vivo experiment, black rice anthocyanins, Drosophila	Inhibited paraquat-induced neurodegeneration in Drosophila	^[Citation75]
	In vivo experiment, black bean anthocyanins, mice	Reduced AβO-induced reactive oxygen species and oxidative stressand helped prevent cell apoptosis and neurodegeneration	^[Citation76]
	In vivo experiment, blueberry anthocyanins, mice	Increased short-term memory and motivation	^[Citation77]
	In vivo experiment, cherry anthocyanins, patients with Alzheimer’s disease	Significantly improved memory and cognitive ability	^[Citation78]
	In vivo experiment, blueberry anthocyanins, elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment	Enhanced nerve response and relieved nervous system diseases	^[Citation79]
Antidiabetic effects	In vivo experiment, blueberry anthocyanins, hyperglycemic mice	Lowered blood sugar levels	^[Citation80]
	In vitro experiment, blueberry anthocyanins	Inhibited the activity of glucosidase, prevented the process of glucose metabolism in the body, and reduced the production of blood sugar	^[Citation81]
	In vivo experiment, blueberry anthocyanins, diabetic mice	Relieved the adverse symptoms of diseased mice such as polydipsia, hyperphagia, and polyuria; equivalent blood sugar lowering effects to that of acarbose	^[Citation82]
	In vivo experiment, black bean seed coat anthocyanins, diabetic mice	Improved the blood sugar and insulin sensitivity of diabetic mice; the effect was related to the activation of adenylate-activated protein kinase	^[Citation83]
	In vivo experiment, mulberry anthocyanins, diabetic mice	Relieved high blood sugar levels of diabetic mice, reduced triglyceride accumulation and cholesterol levels, and increased adiponectin levels	^[Citation84]
Effects against intestinal diseases	In vitro experiment, black rice anthocyanins	Increased the number of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli	^[Citation85]
	In vivo experiment, black raspberry anthocyanins, rats	Promoted the growth of Lactobacillus, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and Eubacterium rectale and also inhibited the growth of harmful bacteria such as Enterococcus spp.	^[Citation86]
	In vitro experiment, blueberry anthocyanins	Increased diversity and abundance of human gut microbes	^[Citation21]
	In vitro experiment, purple sweet potato anthocyanins, fecal samples of healthy volunteers	Significantly increased Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus-Enterococcus spp. proportion and short-chain fatty acid production	^[Citation87]
	In vivo experiment, blueberry anthocyanins, rats	Promoted reverse cholesterol transport mediated by macrophage intestinal floral metabolites and reversed intestinal atherosclerosis lesions	^[Citation88]

Table 2. Bioactivities of proanthocyanidins

Bioactivity	Research design	Conclusion	Reference
Antioxidant activity	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, male rats induced with hypercholesterolemia	Significant increase in the content of superoxide dismutase, glutathione, ascorbic acid, and alpha-tocopherol; reduced lipid peroxidation; and enhanced antioxidant defense system	^[Citation116]
	In vitro experiment, peanut skin proanthocyanidins	Strong scavenging ability for different synthetic free radicals	^[Citation117]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, rats	Reduced oxidative stress and improved mitochondrial function	^[Citation118]
	In vitro experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins	Improved cell redox state through the glutathione synthesis pathway	^[Citation119]
Anticancer activity	In vitro experiment, grape proanthocyanidins	Selective toxicity toward human oral cancer cells; inhibited protein kinase C during tumor development	^[Citation120]
	In vitro experiment, cranberry proanthocyanidins	Induced cell apoptosis and inhibited proliferation to act as chemopreventive agents against esophageal cancer	^[Citation121]
	In vitro experiment, cranberry proanthocyanidins	Rapidly induced cancer cell apoptosis and reduced oxidative stress to prevent lung cancer	^[Citation122]
	In vitro experiment, fresh fruit proanthocyanidins	Induced apoptosis of rectal cancer cells, aiding in rectal cancer prevention	^[Citation123]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, mice	Effects manifested through activation of mitochondrial-related apoptosis pathways; helped to prevent ovarian and cervical cancers	^[Citation124]
Prevention of cardiovascular disease	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, rats	Inhibited the reactive oxygen species/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway; had protective effects on the increase in blood pressure caused by cardiovascular remodeling.	^[Citation125]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, patients with mild hyperlipidemia	Reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein particle levels as well asthe risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease	^[Citation126]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, hamsters with atherosclerosis	Reduced triglyceride, plasma cholesterol , and plasma lipid peroxidation levels	^[Citation127]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, high-fat diet rats	Reduced triglyceride synthesis	^[Citation128]
Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects	In vivo experiment, peanut proanthocyanidins, mice	Significantly reduced liver cholesterol and lipid storage, which is conducive to weight control; reduced the content of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood and lowered blood lipid levels	^[Citation129]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, mice	Inhibited α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, slowed the process of food hydrolysis, and avoided a sharp increase in blood glucose level following a meal	^[Citation130]
	In vivo experiment, peanut proanthocyanidins, rats	Inhibited the rise in blood sugar levels	^[Citation131]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, hypertensive rats	Reduced systolic blood pressure, increased production of nitric oxide, improved the endothelium, and inhibited an increase in blood pressure	^[Citation132]
Bacteriostatic and anti-inflammatory effects	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, rats	Inhibited the formation of proinflammatory cytokines	^[Citation133]
	In vitro experiment, cranberry proanthocyanidins	Inhibited the activity of periodontal bacteria and the production of matrix metalloproteinases	^[Citation134]
	In vitro experiment, cranberry proanthocyanidins	Inhibited oral Candida albicans growth	^[Citation135]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, acute or chronic asthma mice	Reduced lung inflammation and rheumatoid arthritis	^[Citation136]
	In vivo experiment, proanthocyanidins, mice	Inhibited depression in mice induced by lipopolysaccharide treatment through anti-inflammatory effects	^[Citation137]
Regulation of intestinal flora	In vivo experiment, proanthocyanidins, weaned piglets	Enhanced resistance to intestinal oxidative stress and improved the mucosal barrier	^[Citation138]
	In vitro experiment, cranberry proanthocyanidins	Probiotics promoted the metabolism and transformation of proanthocyanidins	^[Citation139]
	In vivo experiment, grape seed proanthocyanidins, female rats	Reduced the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes in the intestines, increased plasma glucagon-like peptide-1 content, and improved glucose tolerance	^[Citation140]

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