Effects of Different Processing Methods on Pulses Phytochemicals: An Overview

Figures & data

Table 1. Pulse classification, production, consumption, and diets.

PulseClassification	Annual globalproduction (million tons/year)	Major exporting countries	Major importing countries	Pulse consumption	References
Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)	25.66*	China, Myanmar, USA, Argentina, Canada, etc.	India, Mexico, USA, UK, Brazil, etc.	Traditional household diets: Fried, baked, or cooked to be eaten as veggies; Commercial processing and products: Packaged dry beans, canned beans, precooked bean products, extruded and pasta-like products, specialised food ingredients (meals, flours, concentrates, powders, and flakes), quick-cooking beans, and frozen beans.	[5,6]
Common Peas (Pisum sativum)	11.69	Canada, Russian Federation, USA, France, Australia, etc.	India, China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Belgium, etc.	Fresh peas cooked as a side dish vegetable and flavoured with butter, spearmint, or both; Used in pot pies, salads, and casseroles; When harvested within a few hours, pod peas best kept by drying, canning, or freezing; Used in stir-fried dishes, notably those in American Chinese cuisine.	[2,6]
Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)	11.67	Australia, Russian Federation, India, Mexico, Canada, etc.	India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, etc.	Boiled, consumed raw, roasted, dehulled, or processed to make flour; Popular snacks after roasted.	[6–9]
Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L.)	6.50	Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, United Republic of Tanzania, Cameroon, etc.	USA	Traditional diets: Eaten whole, cooked, or prepared into stews and soups; Commercial processing methods: Boiling/roasting, milling/fractioning, germination/fermentation.	[6,10–12]
Faba beans (Vicia faba)	4.47	Australia, UK, Lithuania, Egypt, Latvia, etc.	Egypt, Norway, Germany, Saudi Arabia, France, etc.	Typical treatments and processing techniques: Dehulling, soaking, germination, fermentation, extrusion heating, and enzyme treatment; Traditional goods, pasta/spaghetti, bread, tofu, yoghurt, and other foods are examples of processing products.	[6,13]
Lentils (Lens culinaris)	4.99	Canada, Australia, Turkey, USA, etc.	India, Turkey, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, United Arab Emirates, etc.	Macrosperma variants are consumed predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, and Europe as whole grain; Microsperma types, are consumed primarily in Asia in dehulled and split form.	[2,6]
Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan)	4.45	India, Myanmar, Malawi, Kenya, Uganda, etc.	Mauritius	Major processing methods: Shelling, freezing, and canning; Specific procedures in pigeon pea canning and freezing: Cleaning, blanching, and filling cans or polythene bags.	[5,6,11,14]
Other pulses	6.25	-	-	-	[6]
Total pulses	75.68	-	-	Varied in individual diet forms and common processing ways; Consumption methods and most staple dishes prepared from pulses could be various; The combination of pulse and cereal proteins serve a balanced nutrition; Pulses and pulse products (e.g., pulse flour) can be utilized as gluten-free diets to improve nutrition for populations with special demands (e.g., celiac disease).	[15–17]

* The data for annual global production of pulses (million tons/year) are according to 2013–2017 statistics.

Table 2. Nutritional composition of different pulse sources (raw/unprocessed seeds).

Nutritional Compounds			Pulse Source	Content (Per 100 g dry weight)	Reference
Macronutrients
Protein			Common beans	16.7–27.2 g/100 g	[22]
			Peas	20.5–22.6 g/100 g	[18,23–27]
			Chickpeas	20.47 g/100 g	[28,29]
			Cowpeas	22.5–26.1 g/100 g	[12,30]
			Faba bean	26.12–29.2 g/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentils	20.6–31.4 g/100 g	[32]
	Total essential amino acids		Common beans	33.64–40.42 g·16 g−1 N	[33]
			Lupine (blue, white, yellow, andean)	35.53–37.61 g·16 g−1 N	[34]
			Pea	38.59 g·16 g−1 N
			Chickpea	40.55 g·16 g−1 N
			Lentil	39.59 g·16 g−1 N
			Chickpea (flour)	39.89 g/100 g proteins
	Individual essentail amino acids	Lysine	Common beans	1.24 g/100 g	[22]
				5.46–6.33 g·16 g−1 N	[33]
			Cowpeas	3.5–7.9 g·16 g−1 N	[35]
			Peas	6.67 g·16 g−1 N	[33]
			Chickpeas	6.60 g·16 g−1 N
			Lentil	6.92 g·16 g−1 N
			Lupine (blue, white, yellow, andean)	5.57–6.81 g·16 g−1 N
			Chickpea (flour)	6.00 g/100 g proteins	[34]
		Leucine	Common beans	1.68 g/100 g	[22]
			Chickpea (flour)	7.59 g/100 g proteins	[34]
			Faba beans	21.4 g/kg	[36]
			Peas	17.4 g/kg
			Lupines (Lupinus Albus, Lupinus Angustifolius, Lupinus luteus)	21.5–27.5 g/kg M
		Phenylalanine	Common beans	1.36 g/100 g	[22]
			Chickpea (flour)	5.57 g/100 g proteins	[34]
			Faba beans	12.6 g/kg	[36]
			Peas	11.7 g/kg
			Lupines (Lupinus Albus, Lupinus Angustifolius, Lupinus luteus)	12.5–14.9 g/kg
		Valine	Common beans	1.01 g/100 g	[22]
			Chickpea (flour)	5.60 g/100 g proteins	[34]
			Faba beans	13.3 g/kg	[36]
			Peas	11.4 g/kg
			Lupines (Lupinus Albus, Lupinus Angustifolius, Lupinus luteus)	12.5–14.5 g/kg
		Methionine	Chickpea (flour)	1.54 g/100 g proteins	[34]
		Cysteine	Chickpea (flour)	1.36 g/100 g proteins
		Tyrosine	Chickpea (flour)	3.58 g/100 g proteins
		Threonine	Chickpea (flour)	3.86 g/100 g proteins
		Isoleucine	Chickpea (flour)	4.76 g/100 g proteins
Carbohydrate			Common beans	51.51–57.19 g/100 g	[37]
			Peas	17–22 g/100 g	[38,39]
			Chickpea	62.95 g/100 g	[29]
			Cowpeas	74.8 g/100 g	[30]
			Faba bean	44.1 g/100 g	[31]
			Lentils	43.4–69.9 g/100 g	[32]
	Dietary fiber		Common beans	27.8–34.78 g/100 g	[40]
			Peas	14–26 g/100 g	[41–45]
			Chickpeas	6.49–12.2 g/100 g	[29,46]
			Cowpea	10.6 g/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	25 g/100 g	[13]
			Lentils	5.0–26.9 g/100 g	[32]
		Soluble Dietary Fiber	Common beans	0.3–1.6 g/100 g	[47]
			Chickpeas	1.23–1.38 g/100 g	[48]
		Non-Soluble Dietary Fiber	Common beans	25.2–36.1 g/100 g	[47]
			Chickpeas	14.15–23.18 g/100 g	[48]
		Total Starch	Common beans (Negro 8025, Pinto Durango)	35.27–39.84 g/100 g	[47,49]
			Peas	20–50 g/100 g	[25,50]
			Chickpea	36.91g/100 g	[28]
			Cowpeas	28.3–36.2 g/100 g	[51]
			Faba bean	41.2–44.3 g/100 g	[52]
			Lentils	44.5 g/100 g	[15]
		Total Sugars	Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	2.8–5.9 g/100 g	[15]
			Peas	3.87–15.1 g/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	10.7 g/100 g	[29]
			Cowpea	6.90 g/100 g	[12]
			Lentils	1.2 g/100 g	[15]
		Glucose	Peas	0.90 g/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	0–0.065 g/100 g	[28,54]
		Sucrose (g)	Peas	2.20–4.20 mg/g d.w	[53]
			Chickpeas	1.09–2.28 g/100 g	[28,54]
		Fructose (g)	Chickpeas	0.23–0.28 g/100 g	[28,54]
Total lipid (Fat)			Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	0.9–2.1 g/100 g	[15]
			Peas	2.34–2.65 g/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	4.64–5.68 g/100 g	[48]
			Cowpeas	1.26–1.9 g/100 g	[12,51]
			Faba bean	1.53–2.0 g/100 g	[13,52]
			Lentils	0.7–4.3 g/100 g	[32]
	Saturated fatty acids (SFA)		Common beans	0.300–0.490 g/100 g	[15,22]
			Cowpeas	25.1–90.3 g/100 g	[35]
			Lentils	0.2 g/100 g	[15]
	Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)		Common beans	0.230–0.400 g/100 g	[15,22]
			Cowpeas	7.5–24.0 g/100 g	[35]
			Lentils	0.3 g/100 g	[15]
	Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)		Common beans	0.500–1.280 g/100 g	[15,22]
			Cowpeas	32.4–64.8 g/100 g	[35]
			Lentils	0.8 g/100 g	[15]
	Water		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	11.0–11.3 mg/100 g	[15]
Micronutrients
Minerals	Calcium (Ca)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	100–180 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	9.5 mg/100 g	[55]
			Chickpeas	81.7–165 mg/100 g	[48]
			Cowpeas	34.7 mg/100 g	[30]
			Faba bean	103–220 mg/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentils	71 mg/100 g	[15]
			Pegion peas	120.8 mg/100 g
	Iron (Fe)		Common beans	5.500–8.082 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	2.20–49.0 mg/100 g	[55]
			Chickpeas	4.31–5.50 mg/100 g	[29,48]
			Cowpeas	8.27 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	6.6–6.7 mg/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentils	11.1 mg/100 g	[15]
	Magnesium (Mg)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	180–190 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	5.5 mg/100 g	[55]
			Chickpeas	147.0–169 mg/100 g	[48]
			Cowpeas	184 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	192–281 mg/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentils	110 mg/100 g	[15]
	Potassium (K)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	1090–1160 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	98 mg/100 g	[55]
			Chickpeas	994.5–1060.0 mg/100 g	[48]
			Cowpeas	1112 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	748–1062 mg/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentils	940 mg/100 g	[15]
	Phosphorus (P)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	310–590 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	0.22–0.51 mg/100 g	[55]
			Chickpeas	252–451.5 mg/100 g	[29,48]
			Cowpeas	424 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	421 mg/100 g	[13]
			Lentils	350 mg/100 g	[15]
	Zinc (Zn)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	2.229–3.768 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	2.04–6.35 mg/100 g	[55]
			Chickpeas	3.4–4.07 mg/100 g	[48]
			Cowpeas	3.37 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	3.14–11.7 mg/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentils	3.9 mg/100 g	[15]
	Sodium (Na)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	11-43mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	3.5 mg/100 g	[55]
			Cowpeas	16 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	13–297 mg/100 g	[13,31]
			Lentil	12 mg/100 g	[15]
	Selenium (Se)		Cowpeas	9.0 mg/100 g	[12]
Vitamin	Thiamin (Vitamin B1)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	0.45–0.5 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	0.44–0.62 mg/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	0.477 mg/100 g	[29]
			Faba bean	0.64 mg/100 g	[31]
			Lentils	0.41 mg/100 g	[15]
	Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	0.13–0.26 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	0.07–0.64 mg/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	0.212 mg/100 g	[29]
			Faba bean	0.190 mg/100 g	[31]
			Lentils	0.27 mg/100 g	[15]
	Niacin		Peas	1.06 mg/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	1.541 mg/100 g	[29]
			Cowpeas	2.06 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	2.000–2.832 mg/100 g	[13,31]
	Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	0.37–0.56 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	0.10 mg/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	0.535 mg/100 g	[29]
			Faba bean	0.230 mg/100 g	[31]
			Lentils	0.93 mg/100 g
	Pantothenic acid		Chickpeas	1.588 mg/100 g	[29]
			Cowpeas	1.50 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	0.270 mg/100 g	[31]
	Choline		Chickpeas	99.3 mg/100 g	[29]
			Cowpeas	94.7 mg/100 g	[12]
	Folate/Folic acid (Vitamin B9)		Peas	0.050–0.054 mg/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	0.557 mg/100 g	[29]
			Cowpeas	0.633 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	0.423 mg/100 g	[13]
	Retinol (Vitamin A)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	0 g	[15]
			Chickpeas	67 IU	[29]
			Cowpeas	3 μg/100 g	[12]
			Lentils	0g	[15]
			Faba bean	53 IU	[13]
	Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	Tr	[15]
			Peas	2.2–29.5 mg/100 g	[53]
			Chickpeas	4.0 mg/100 g	[29]
			Cowpeas	1.50 mg/100 g	[12]
			Faba bean	1.4 mg/100 g	[13]
			Lentil	Tr	[15]
	Tocopherol (Vitamin E)		Common beans (white bean, broad bean)	0.21 mg/100 g	[15]
			Peas	2.2–7.1 mg/100g	[53]
			Chickpeas	2.88 mg/100 g	[15]
	Phylloquinone (Vitamin K)		Faba bean	9 mg/100 g	[13]

* Tr stands for trace.

Table 3. Contents of phytochemicals in different pulse sources.

Phytochemicals	Pulse Source	Content	Reference
Phenolic Compounds
Total Phenolics	MexicanCommon beans	0.90–2.11 mg GAE/g	[62]
	Common beans (Black, Pinto, Red)	8.58–20.30 mg catechin/g	[63]
	Peas	4.90 mg CE/g *d.w.	[64]
	Peas (flour)	5.89 mg CE/g d.w	[65]
	Lentils	11.8–12.0 mg/g	[66]
	Chickpeas	2.2 mg/g
	Peas (Yellow Peas, Green Peas)	1.2–2.5 mg/g
	Soybeans	2.3 mg/g
	Cowpea	7.94 mg GAE/g	[67]
	Cowpeas	89.4–295.2 mg GAE/g	[68]
	Faba bean	220.55 µg GAE/g	[69]
	Faba bean (Seeds)	3.86 mg GAE/g d.w	[70]
	Faba bean (Leaves)	43.18–54.31 mg GAE/g d.w
	Faba bean (10 varieties)	258–570 mg GAE/100 g d.w.	[71]
	Lentils (5 different genotypes)	5.90 mg GAE/g	[72]
	Pigeon pea	0.16%	[73]
		3.82%-16.61%	[74]
		6.15 mg GAE/g	[75]
Total Phenolic Acids	Peas (Yellow peas, Green peas)	154.4–253.3 mg/g	[76]
	Chickpeas	1285.7 mg/g
	Lentil	2818.6 mg/g
	Chickpeas	16.92–36.91 μg/g	[77]
	White lupine	508.6 µg/100 g	[78]
Hydroxybenzoics	Pinta beans	84.92 μg/g	[79]
	Peas (Yellow peas, Green peas)	74.91–84.38 mg/g	[76]
	Chickpeas	165.6 mg/g
	Lentil	136.1 mg/g
	Chickpeas (Sinaloa chickpea, Castellano chickpea)	7.05–25.62 μg/g d.w.	[80]
	Faba Beans (10 varieties)	76.2–153.9 µg/g	[71]
Hydroxycinnamics	Pinta beans	36.31 μg/g	[79]
	Peas (Yellow peas, Green peas)	79.46–168.9 mg/g	[76]
	Chickpeas	1120.2 mg/g
	Lentil	2682.5 mg/g
	Faba beans (10 varieties)	3.37–7.71 µg/g	[71]
Total Flavonoids	Common Bean	5.03–14.12 mg quercetin/g	[81]
	Chickpeas	148.48–302.09 μg/g	[77]
	Cowpeas	109.0–164.0 mg QE/g1	[68]
	Faba beans	106.33µg QE/g	[69]
	Faba bean (Seeds)	1.00mg CE/g d.w.	[70]
	Faba bean (Leaves)	43.68–63.67mg CE/g d.w.
	Faba bean (10 varieties)	200–316 µg/g	[71]
	Lentils	398.33 mg catechin/100 g	[82]
	Lentils (5 different genotypes)	4.95mg CATE/g	[72]
	Pigeon peas	2.11–5.44%	[74]
	Pigeon peas	43.43 QE/100 g	[75]
Flavonols	Pinta beans	14.58 μg/g	[79]
	Common Beans (Black, Pinto, Red)	0.22–1.11 μg QE/g	[63]
	Peas	0.08 μg QE/g	[64]
	Pea (flour)	81.54 μg QE/g d.w.	[65]
	Chickpeas (Sinaloa chickpea)	1.83 μg/g d.w.	[80]
Total flavan-3-ols	Peas (Yellow peas, Green peas)	205.3–282.9 mg/g	[76]
	Chickpeas	1693.7 mg/g
	Lentil	4524.9 mg/g
Flavanones	Pinta beans	10.87 μg/g	[79]
Isoflavones	Chickpeas (Sinaloa chickpea, Castellano chickpea)	51.92–57.53 μg/g d.w.	[80]
Tannins	Common Bean	10.1–44.2 mg CE/g	[83]
	Lupine (Blue, White, Yellow, Andean)	2.58–16.34 g/kg	[33]
	Peas	4.69 g/kg
	Chickpea	3.78 g/kg
	Lentil	8.72 g/kg
	Common Bean	0.38–1.53 g/kg
	Faba Beans (5 selected cultivars)	0.21–0.65 mg/g	[84]
	Lentils	466.10 mg/100 g	[82]
	Lentils (5 different genotypes)	3.04 mg GAE/g	[72]
	Pigeon Pea	0.22–0.49%	[73,74]
Condensed Tannins	Common Bean	2.15–10.65 mg catechin/g	[81]
	Cowpeas	1.9–4.9 mg catechin/g	[68]
	Mexican Common Bean	9.49–35.70 mg of catechin/g	[62]
Anthocyanins	Common Bean	0.43 ± 0.03 mg cyanidin 3-gluc./g	[81]
	Mexican Common Bean	0.01–1.85 mg of cyanidin 3-glucoside (C3G)/g	[62]
	Common Beans (Red, Pinto, Black)	0.32–0.63 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent/g	[63]
	Peas	80.00 μg C3GlcE/g d.w.	[64]
	Peas (flour)	8.21 μg C3GlcE/g d.w.	[65]
	Cowpeas	0.1–1.8 mg cy-3-glu−1	[68]
Catechins and procyanidins	Pinta beans	256.94 μg/g	[79]
Catechin	Chickpeas	123.64–225.76 μg/g	[77]
	Faba beans	1455.59 µg/g	[69]
Total proanthocyanidin	Faba Beans (5 selected cultivars)	0.162–0.271 mg/g	[84]
	Lentils (5 genotypes)	7.93 mg PCBE/g	[72]
Other Bioactive Compounds
Oligosaccharide	Mexican Common Bean	39.0–57.6 mg/g	[85]
Total α-galactosides	Pea	71.45 mg/g d.w.	[64]
	Pea (flour)	6.43 mg/100 mg d.w.	[65]
Total Phytosterols	Lentils	22.9–31.6 mg/100 g	[78]
	Peas (Yellow Split, Green Split)	33.7–42.8 mg/100 g
	Chickpeas	48.9 mg/100 g
	Kidney Bean	134 mg/100 g	[86]
	Pea	242 mg/100 g
β-sitosterol	Butter Bean	85 mg/100 g	[86]
	Chickpea	160 mg/100 g
Alkaloid	Pigeon pea	0.323–2.65%	[73,74]
Total tocopherol (Ts)	Chickpeas	90.50–120.95 µg/g	[77]
		124.5 mg/100 g	[87]
Total carotenoid	Chickpeas	111.0 mg/100 g	[87]
Resistant Starch	Mung Bean	5.70–5.95 g/100 g	[88]
	Cowpea	3.24–9.62 g/100 g
Antinutritional Compounds
Phytic Acid	Chickpeas	21.2 mg/g	[89]
	Faba bean	32.0 mg/g	[89]
	Chickpea (desi and kabuli cultivars)	Varied from 5.98 (kabuli PUSA1053) to 11.00 (desi JG74) mg/g	[90]
	Black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper)	5.6 mg/g (varied from 1.7 (KUG-365)-9.0 (KUG-509) mg/g)	[91]
	Lentils	4.13 mg/g (brown lentils, after household cooking), 7.14 mg/g (Green lentils, after canning)	[92]
Total inositol phosphates (IP)	Peas	11.08 mg/g	[64]
Phytate	Peas	8.82 mg/g	[64]
	Pigeon pea	1.017%	[73]
Trypsin Inhibitor	Chickpeas	14.7 mg/g	[89]
	Faba bean	2.2 mg/g	[89]
	Faba beans (Whole, Split)	5.96 (Whole faba bean)–6.10 (Split faba bean) TIU/mg	[93]
	Chickpea (desi and kabuli cultivars)	Varied from 17 to 31 mg/g in desi cultivars and in 9 to 16 mg/g in kabuli	[90]
	Chickpeas	14.22–16.24 TIU/mg	[93]
	Black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper)	94.2 units/g seeds	[91]
	Lentils (Whole red lentil, Split red lentil, Football red lentil, Spanish brown lentil, etc.)	4.98–6.29 TIU/mg	[93]
	Lentils	0.94–1.94 TIU/mg	[94]
	Peas (Whole yellow pea, Split yellow pea, Whole green pea, Split green pea)	3.16–4.92 TIU/mg	[93]
	Common beans (Dark red kidney bean, Pinto bean, Navy bean, Black bean)	15.18–20.83 TIU/mg	[93]
	Soybean	45.89 TIU/mg	[93]
	Common Bean	6.3–14.5 TUI/mg	[83]
	Peas	9.43 TIU/mg	[64]
α-Amylase inhibitor	Dry beans	43.19%	[63]
	Bean (Dark red kidney bean, Pinto bean, Navy bean, Black bean)	Varied from 785.58 (Black bean) to 1369.75 (Dark red kidney bean) AIU/g dry matter	[93]
	Soybean	938.73 AIU/g dry matter	[93]
Chymotrypsin inhibitor	Peas	3.17 CIU/mg	[64]
Total Tannins	Faba bean	1.28 g/100 g	[89]
	Chickpea (desi and kabuli cultivars)	Varied from 0.18 to 0.22% in desi; 0.07 to 0.13% in kabuli	[90]
	Black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper)	7.33 mg/g	[91]
Saponins	Faba beans (VH 131 variety)	13.70 mg/g	[95]
	Black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper)	14.3 mg/g	[91]
	Pigeon pea	21.64 mg/g- 34.94 mg/g	[96]
	Pigeon pea	0.466%	[73]
Total soyasaponins	Mexican black bean	42.28 mg/100 g	[97]
Oxalate	Pigeon pea	0.139%	[73]
Total polyphenols	Faba beans	14.70 mg/100 g d.w.	[98]
	Chickpea	1.47–2.87 mg GAE/g d.w.	[99]
	Lentils (Small lentils, large lentils)	25.8 (Large lentils)-25.9 (Small lentils) mg GAE/g	[100]
	Lentils (Colfiorito lentils, Eston lentils, Dehulled lentils, Laird lentils, Black lentils, etc.)	0.84–4.52 mg GAE/g	[101]
	Lentils	37.14 mg/100 g d.w.	[98]
	Lentil	1.22–7.45 mg GAE/g d.w.	[99]
	Peas (Green split peas, Yellow split peas)	11.8–13.6 mg GAE/100 g fresh w.t.	[100]
	Common beans	0.68–7.16 mg GAE/g	[101]
	Lupines (White lupines)	19.4 mg GAE/100 g fresh w.t.	[100]
Lectin/Haemagglutinins	Common Bean	0.5–3.1 HAU/g	[83]
	Peas	83.33 HU/kg	[64]
	Kidney Beans	840 ×10−5 HU/kg	[102]
	Cowpea	3×10−5 HU/kg
	Lupin	3×10−5 HU/kg

*d.w.: dry weight.

Table 4. Effect of different processing methods on pulse phytochemical compounds.

Pulse source	Compounds studied	Processing methods	Content of studied compounds	References
Soaking
Faba bean	Phytic acid	Raw	8.36 mg/g	[128]
		Soaking (10°C, after preheating)	4.10–5.35 mg/g (36–51% decreased)
		Natural and accelerated fermentation	1.34–4.34 mg/g (48–84% decreased)
		Steeping (25°C, 24 h)	6.12–6.86 mg/g (18–27% decreased)
		Sprouting (30°C, 120 h)	2.66–7.70 mg/g (8–69% decreased)
Faba beans	Condensed tannins	Raw	1.95 g eq cat kt−1 DM	[129]
		Soaking	1.02 g eq cat kt−1 DM (47.7% decreased)
Canadian cowpea	Phytic acid	Raw	22.63 mg/g	[130]
		Soaking (18 h)	14.71 mg/g
		Boiling (4 h)	6.30 mg/g
Kidney bean (Roba variety)	Phytic acid	Unprocessed seeds (control)	23.51 mg/g	[131]
		Water soaking (12 h in plain water)	19.28 mg/g (18% decreased)
		Sodium bicarbonate soaking (12 h)	20.22 mg/g (14% decreased)
	Tannins	Unprocessed seeds (control)	5.37 mg/g
		Water soaking (12 h in plain water)	4.03 mg/g (25% decreased)
		Sodium bicarbonate soaking (12 h)	3.92 mg/g (27% decreased)
Kidney beans	Condensed tannins	Raw	3.59 g eq cat kt−1 DM	[129]
		Soaking	2.72 g eq cat kt−1 DM (24.2% decreased)
Black bean (T-39 cultivar)		Raw	47.1 mg/100 g	[132]
		Soaking (Soaking water extract)	0.9 mg/100 g
		Cooking (Paste of simmered beans)	38.2 mg/100 g
Great Northern bean (Matterhon cultivar)	Total phenolic acid content	Raw	32.5 mg/100 g	[132]
		Soaking (Soaking water extract)	0.2 mg/100 g
		Cooking (Paste of simmered beans)	32.2 mg/100 g
Vegetable peas (Bonneville)	Phytic acid	Control	630.3 mg/100 g	[133]
		Soaking (6 h)	598.7 mg/100 g
		Soaking (12 h)	581.3 mg/100 g
		Soaking (18 h)	554.6 mg/100 g
Green pea	TPC	Raw	1.22 mg GAE/g	[134]
		Soaking (50, 70, 85, 100% hydration).	1.08–1.16 mg GAE/g (4.9–11.5% decreased)
Lentils	TPC	Raw	7.34 mg GAE/g	[134]
		Soaking (50, 70, 85, 100% hydration).	4.56–6.64 mg GAE/g (9.5–37.8% decreased)
Pardina Lentil	kaempferol 3-glucoside	Raw	3.66 μg/g	[135]
		Soaking	2.21 μg/g
	dihydroxybenzoic acid	Raw	3.68 μg/g
		Soaking	39.20 μg/g
Sinaloa chickpea	p-hydroxybenzoic acid	Raw	6.01 μg/g dry matter	[80]
		Soaking	1.88 μg/g dry matter (68.7% decreased)
	Total flavonols	Raw	1.83 μg/g dry matter
		Soaking	3.40 μg/g dry matter (increased)
		Soaking + cooking	2.78 μg/g dry matter (increased)
	dihydroxybenzoic acid	Raw	0.44 μg/g dry matter
		Soaking	0.35 μg/g dry matter
		Soaking + cooking	3.50 μg/g dry matter (increased)
Red gram	Tannins	Raw	296.9 mg/100 g	[136]
		Soaking	230.1 mg/100 g (22.5% decreased)
Bengal gram	Tannins	Raw	236.6 mg/100 g	[136]
		Soaking	184.3 mg/100 g (22.1% decreased)
Faba beans (Two varieties)	Saponins	Soaking (12 h, 37°C)	20–23% decreased	[137]
Common beans	α-amylase inhibitor	Soaking	4–10% decreased	[93]
Soybean	α-amylase inhibitor	Soaking	4% decreased
Peas	Trypsin inhibitor	Soaking	17.34–30.74% decreased
Lentils	Trypsin inhibitor	Soaking	5.57–19.35% decreased
Faba beans	Trypsin inhibitor	Soaking	12.73–22.59% decreased
Chickpeas	Trypsin inhibitor	Soaking	9.39–25.27% decreased
Common beans	Trypsin inhibitor	Soaking	4.88–9.09% decreased
Soybean	Trypsin inhibitor	Soaking	18.58% decreased
Pulse	Cyanogenic glycosides	Soaking (sodium bicarbonate solution)	13.9% decreased	[138]
		Soaking (citric acid solution)	8.7% decreased
		Soaking (water)	7.7% decreased
Extrusion
Faba beans	Phytic acid	Raw (unsoaked)	6.40 mg/g	[139]
		Extrusion (Unsoaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	6.86 mg/g (140°C, 18%); 6.05 mg/g (180°C, 22%); 6.26 mg/g (140°C, 22%); 6.23 mg/g (180°C,18%).
		Raw (pre-soaked)	6.10 mg/g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	4.80–5.50 mg/g
	Tannins	Raw (unsoaked)	492 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (unsoaked)	397–438 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	485 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	362–426 mg/100 g
	Total phenols	Raw (unsoaked)	850 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (unsoaked)	635–750 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	810 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	559–644 mg/100 g
Faba beans	Phytic acid	Raw	21.7g/kg DM	[129]
		Extrusion	15.9 g/kg DM (26.6% decreased)
	Condensed tannins	Raw	1.95 g eq cat/kt DM
		Extrusion	0.89 g eq cat/kt DM (54.4% decreased)
	Polyphenols	Raw	3.92 g/kg DM
		Extrusion	2.80 g/kg DM (28.6% decreased)
	Trypsin inhibitors	Raw	4.47 IU/mg DM
		Extrusion	0.05 IU/mg DM (98.9% decreased)
	Chymotrypsin inhibitor	Raw	3.56 IU/mg DM
		Extrusion	1.68 IU/mg DM (52.8% decreased)
	α-Amylase inhibitors	Raw	18.9 IU/g DM
		Extrusion	0.00 IU/g DM (100% decreased)
	Hemagglutinating activity	Raw	49.3 HU/mg DM
		Extrusion	0.2 HU/mg DM (99.6% decreased)
Peas	Phytic acid	Raw (Unsoaked)	8.97 mg/g	[139]
		Extrusion (Unsoaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	7.90–8.34 mg/g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	8.50 mg/g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	7.14–7.60 mg/g
	Tannins	Raw (Unsoaked)	330 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (Unsoaked)	236–278 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	269 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	200–233 mg/100 g
	Total phenols	Raw (Unsoaked)	460 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (Unsoaked)	392–430 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	393 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	343–379 mg/100 g
Chickpeas	Phytic acid	Raw (Unsoaked)	8.21 mg/g	[139]
		Extrusion (Unsoaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	7.33–8.16 mg/g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	8.00 mg/g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	8.04 mg/g (140°C, 18%); 7.44 mg/g (180°C, 18%); 7.74 mg/g (140°C, 22%); 7.35 mg/g (180°C, 22%).
	Tannins	Raw (Unsoaked)	260 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (Unsoaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	190–245 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	210 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	214 mg/100 g (180°C, 18%); 210mg/100 g (180°C, 22%); 196 mg/100 g (140°C, 18%); 195 mg/100 g (140°C, 22%).
	Total phenols	Raw (Unsoaked)	590 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (Unsoaked)	470–520 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	550 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	270–380 mg/100 g
Kidney beans	Phytic acid	Raw (Unsoaked)	11.03 mg/g	[139]
		Extrusion (Unsoaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	9.64–10.90 mg/g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	9.95 mg/g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked; 140°C and 180°C; 18% and 22% moisture)	10.41 mg/100 g (140°C, 18%), 10.05 mg/100 g (140°C, 22%); 9.77 mg/g (180°C, 18%); 9.53 mg/100 g (180°C, 22%).
	Tannins	Raw (Unsoaked)	233 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (Unsoaked)	196–223 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	229 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	171–190 mg/100 g
	Total phenols	Raw (Unsoaked)	639 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (Unsoaked)	539–621 mg/100 g
		Raw (pre-soaked)	610 mg/100 g
		Extrusion (pre-soaked)	413–494 mg/100 g
Kidney beans	Phytic acid	Raw	15.9 g/kg DM	[129]
		Extrusion	12.6 g/kg DM (21.4% decreased)
	Condensed tannins	Raw	3.59 g eq cat/kt DM
		Extrusion	0.58 g eq cat/kt DM (83.8% decreased)
	Polyphenols	Raw	2.07 g/kg DM
		Extrusion	1.12 g/kg DM (45.9% decreased)
	Trypsin inhibitors	Raw	3.10 IU/mg DM
		Extrusion	0.43 IU/mg DM (86.1% decreased)
	Chymotrypsin inhibitor	Raw	3.97 IU/mg DM
		Extrusion	0.00 IU/mg DM (100% decreased)
	α-Amylase inhibitors	Raw	248 IU/g DM
		Extrusion	0.00 IU/g DM (100% decreased)
	Hemagglutinating activity	Raw	74.5 HU/mg DM
		Extrusion	0.2 HU/mg DM (99.7% decreased)
Lentil (flour samples)	Total phenolics	Raw	4.68 mg GAE/g	[140]
		Extrusion	5.18 mg GAE/g (increased)
	Hydroxybenzoic acids	Raw	2.52 mg GAE/g
		Extrusion	4.40 mg GAE/g (increased)
	Hydroxycinnamic acids	Raw	9.79 mg FAE/g
		Extrusion	12.28 mg FAE/g
	Flavonols	Raw	13.50 mg QE/g
		Extrusion	5.09 mg QE/g
Rice-extruded Bean/Carob flours	Anthocyanins and total phenolics	Extrusion	Around 11%–36% increased	[64]
Formulated lentil-nutritional yeast flours	Lectin	Extrusion (140°C; 160°C)	95.0–99.6% decreased	[141]
	α-galactosides	Extrusion (140°C; 160°C)	Increase (up to 85%)
Germination
Soybean (Bangladesh soybean-4)	Total folate content	Raw	230.5 μg/100 g FW	[142]
		Germination	815.2 μg/100 g FW
Soybean (HeiNong48)	Total folate content	Raw	202.9 μg/100 g FW
		Germination	759.5 μg/100 g FW
Mung bean (BARI mung-4)	Total folate	Raw	168.9 μg/100 g FW
		Germination	690.89 μg/100 g FW
Mung bean (Sulv3)	Total folate	Raw	141.1 μg/100 g FW
		Germination	633.9 μg/100 g FW
Beans	Protocatechuic acid	Raw	32.8–41.4 μg/100 g	[143]
		Germination	n.d.
	HBA	Raw	32.3–36.1 μg/100 g
		Germination (6 days)	11.5–15.7 μg/100 g
	Flavonoids	Raw	n.d.
		Germination (6 days)	quercetin-3-rhamnoside (297–311 μg/100 g), kaempferol-3-rutinoside (305–323 μg/100 g) and kaempferol-3-glucoside (72.7–78.3 μg/100 g)
Lentil	bound phenolic compounds	Raw	38 mg/100 g	[144]
		Germination (3 days)	5 mg/100 g
		Germination (24 h)	61.3 mg/100 g
Lentil	Total phenolic content	Raw	53 mg/kg	[143]
		Germination (5 days)	78 mg/kg
Mung bean	Vitamin C	Raw	11.69 mg/100 g DW	[145]
		Germination (8 days)	285 mg/100 g DW
	Total phenilc content	Raw	214.7 mg GA equiv/100 g DW
		Germination (9 days)	966.4 mg GA equiv/100 g DW
	Free phenolics	Raw	170.8 mg GA equiv/100 g DW
		Germination (9 days)	925.4 mg GA equiv/100 g DW
	Bound phenolic	Raw	43.91 mg GA equiv/100 g DW
		Germination (1–9 days)	48.26 and 40.96 mg GA equiv/100 g DW (non-significance)
	Quercetin-3-O-glucoside	Raw	0.49 mg/100 g DW
		Germination (4 days)	5.95 mg/100 g DW
		Germination (5 days and after)	10.98 mg/100 g DW
Horse gram	TPC	Raw	46.53 mg GAE/g	[146]
		Germination	52.33 mg GAE/g
	Oxalate	Raw	3.18 mg/g
		Germination	1.73 mg/g
	Phytate	Raw	10.23 mg/g
		Germination	5.76 mg/g
	Tannin	Raw	16.18 mg/g
		Germination	10.28 mg/g
Faba Bean	Phytic Acid	Germination	75% decreased	[147]
Solara beans	Phytic Acid	Raw	1.33 g/100 g	[148]
		Germination (24 h)	0.97 g/100 g
		Germination (48 h)	0.88 g/100 g
		Germination (72 h)	0.76 g/100 g
Soya beans	Kunitz trypsin inhibitor	Germination (8 days)	Decreased	[149]
Black bean	Soysaponin Af	Raw	0.65 mg/g	[150]
		Germination (1 day)	0.98 mg/g
		Germination (2 days)	0.54 mg/g
		Germination (3 days)	1.45 mg/g
		Germination (4 days)	7.38 mg/g
Roasting
Beans (kidney beans, black-eyed peas, pinto beans, soybeans)	Total phenolics	Raw	100%	[151]
		Roasting (Black-eyed peas)	27%
		Roasting (Kidney beans)	24%
		Roasting (Pinto beans)	18%
Faba beans	phytic acid	Raw	2.62 mg/g	[152]
		Roasting	2.23 mg/g
Faba beans	Total phenolic content	Raw	10.7mg GAE/g DW	[153]
		Roasting (10 min)	8.3 mg GAE/g DW
		Roasting (30 min)	5.5 mg GAE/g DW
		Roasting (60 min)	5.2 mg GAE/g DW
		Roasting (120 min)	6.2 mg GAE/g DW
	Total flavonoid content	Raw	2.8mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (10 min)	2.3 mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (30 min)	1.6 mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (60 min)	1.8 mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (120 min)	1.6 mg CE/g DW
	Total proanthocyanidins	Raw	0.23mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (10 min)	0.16 mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (30 min)	0.14 mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (60 min)	0.13 mg CE/g DW
		Roasting (120 min)	0.16 mg CE/g DW
Mangrove legume (Canavalia cathartica)	TPC	Raw	1450 mg/100 g d.w.	[154]
		Roasting	1440 mg/100 g d.w.
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean)	Oxalate	Raw	490.6 mg/100 g	[155]
		Roasting	466.2 mg/100 g
	Tannin	Raw	3.09 moldm−3
		Roasting	2.56 moldm−3
	Phytate	Raw	353.9 mg/100 g
		Roasting	346.9 mg/100 g
	Saponin	Raw	4.6%
		Roasting	4.2%
	Alkaloid	Raw	6.2%
		Roasting	4.4%
	Cyanide	Raw	4.13 moldm−3
		Roasting	3.64 moldm−3
	Chemotrypsin	Raw	0.4674 g
		Roasting	0.4090 g
Adzuki beans	Phytic Acid	Roasting (600 W, 7 min)	3.50 mg/g	[156]
		Roasting (600 W, 14 min)	2.42 mg/g
		Roasting (600 W, 21 min)	2.28 mg/g
	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Roasting (600 W, 7 min)	0.72 mg TI/g
		Roasting (600 W, 14 min)	0.45 mg TI/g
		Roasting (600 W, 21 min)	0.17 mg TI/g
	TPC	Roasting (600 W, 7 min)	6.21mg GAE/g
		Roasting (600 W, 14 min)	17.12 mg GAE/g
		Roasting (600 W, 21 min)	25.32 mg GAE/g
	Saponins	Roasting (600 W, 7 min)	1.56 mg/g
		Roasting (600 W, 14 min)	1.54 mg/g
		Roasting (600 W, 21 min)	1.53 mg/g
Cowpea (Paiyur 1)	Tannin	Raw	760 mg/100 g	[157]
		Roasting	390 mg/100 g
	Phytic acid	Raw	153.80 mg/100 g
		Roasting	120.31 mg/100 g
	Trypsin inhibitor	Raw	2866.85 TIA/100 g
		Roasting	1140.56 TIA/100 g
Black gram (VBN(Bg)4)	Tannin	Raw	859.3 mg/100 g
		Roasting	540 mg/100 g
	Phytic acid	Raw	674 mg/100 g
		Roasting	553 mg/100 g
	Trypsin inhibitor	Raw	2463.25 TIA/g
		Roasting	1002.45 TIA/g
Steaming
Green bean	Total ascorbic acid	Steaming (115°C, 0 min)	5.33 mg/100 g green bean	[158]
		Steaming (115°C, 10 min)	4.68 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (115°C, 20 min)	5.00 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (115°C, 40 min)	5.11 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (20min, raw)	5.33 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (20min, 100°C)	5.32 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (20min, 115°C)	5.00 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (20min, 121°C)	5.15 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (20min, 115°C)	5.00 mg/100 g green bean
		Steaming (20min, 121°C)	5.15 mg/100 g green bean
	Total phenolics	Steaming (115°C, 10 min)	36% decreased
		Steaming (115°C, 20 min)	32% decreased
		Steaming (115°C, 30 min)	30% decreased
	Total flavonoids	Steaming (115°C, 10 min)	60% decreased
		Steaming (100°C, 120 min)	60% decreased
Green beans (Purple(Cv Purple Queen))	Total phenols	Raw	23.20 mg GAE/100 g FW	[159]
		Steaming	21.68 mg GAE/100 g FW
Green beans (Green (Cv Allure))	Total phenols	Raw	11.87 mg GAE/100 g FW
		Steaming	8.3 mg GAE/100 g FW
Green beans (Yellow (Cv Brittle Wax))	Total phenols	Raw	7.81 mg GAE/100 g FW
		Steaming	6.29 mg GAE/100 g FW
Green pea	Total phenolic content	Conventional steaming, 70 min	25.0% decreased	[76]
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	10.5% decreased
	Procyanidin content	Conventional steaming, 70 min	8.9% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	20.7% decreased
	Saponin	Conventional steaming, 70 min	15.8% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	9.5% decreased
	Phytic acid	Conventional steaming, 70 min	18.2% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	20.7% decreased
	Catechin	Raw	205.3 mg/g
		Conventional steaming, 70 min	129.9 mg/g
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	130.9 mg/g
	Total flavan-3-ols	Raw	205.3 mg/g
		Conventional steaming, 70 min	129.9 mg/g
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	130.9 mg/g
Yellow pea	Total phenolic content	Conventional steaming, 70 min	25.9% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	12.9% decreased
	Procyanidin content	Conventional steaming, 70 min	8.5% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	17.9% decreased
	Saponin	Conventional steaming, 70 min	5.2% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	17.5% decreased
	Phytic acid	Conventional steaming, 70 min	16.7% decreased
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	20.6% decreased
	Catechin	Raw	282.9 mg/g
		Conventional steaming, 70 min	186.3 mg/g
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	135.8 mg/g
	Total flavan-3-ols	Raw	282.9 mg/g
		Conventional steaming, 70min	186.3 mg/g
		Pressure steaming, 15 psi, 60 min	135.8 mg/g
Green pea	TPC	Regular Steaming (70 min)	13.9% decreased	[134]
		Pressure Steaming (5 psi, 70 min)	27.9% decreased
		Pressure Steaming (15 psi, 60 min)	15.6% decreased
Chickpea	TPC	Regular Steaming (70 min)	2.8% decreased
		Pressure Steaming (5 psi, 70 min)	7.6% decreased
		Pressure Steaming (15 psi, 60 min)	4.3% decreased
Vigna. racemosa	Phytic acid	Raw	63.15 mg/g	[160]
		Atmospheric steaming	25.87 mg/g (59.03% decreased)
		Pressure steaming	25.10 mg/g (60.25% decreased)
	Saponin	Raw	5.15 mg/g
		Atmospheric steaming	1.48 mg/g (71.26% decreased)
		Pressure steaming	1.55 mg/g (69.90% decreased)
	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Raw	9.72mg/g
		Atmospheric steaming	0.00 mg/g (100% decreased)
		Pressure steaming	0.00 mg/g (100% decreased)
Cowpea-based products	Phytic acid	Steaming	7.8–14.0% decreased	[161]
	Tannin	Steaming	19.6–24.7% decreased
	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Steaming	64.2–72.0% decreased
Soya beans	Lectins	Raw	7638 µg/g	[162]
		Steaming (102°C, 10 min)	1005 µg/g
		Steaming (102°C, 20 min)	105 µg/g
		Steaming (102°C, 40 min)	14 µg/g
		Steaming (120°C, 2 min)	<0.5 µg/g
Faba seeds	Total phenolic acid	Control	3.86 mg GAE/g d.w.	[70]
		Steaming (15 min)	3.76 mg GAE/g d.w.
		Steaming (30 min)	3.67 mg GAE/g d.w.
		Steaming (45 min)	3.67 mg GAE/g d.w.
		Steaming (60 min)	3.74 mg GAE/g d.w.
	Total flavonoid acid	Control	1.00 mg CE/g d.w.
		Steaming (15 min)	1.20 mg CE/g d.w.
		Steaming (30 min)	1.05 mg CE/g d.w.
		Steaming (45 min)	1.18 mg CE/g d.w.
		Steaming (60 min)	1.12 mg CE/g d.w.
Autoclaving
Faba beans	Phytic acid	Raw	399 mg/100g	[147]
		Autoclaving	205 mg/100g
Common beans	Trypsin inhibitors	Unprocessed	1918.64 UI/g	[163]
		Autoclaving (0.5 Kgf cm−2/111 C, 15 min)	1025.23 UI/g
		Autoclaving (0.5 Kgf cm−2/111 C, 45 min)	977.77 UI/g
		Autoclaving (1.5 Kgf cm−2/127 C, 15 min)	770.75 UI/g
		Autoclaving (1.5 Kgf cm−2/127 C, 45 min)	790.43UI/g
	α-amylase inhibitors	Unprocessed	6512.83 UI/g
		Autoclaving (0.5 Kgf cm−2/111 C, 15 min)	5809.05 UI/g
		Autoclaving (0.5 Kgf cm−2/111 C, 45 min)	5534.83 UI/g
		Autoclaving (1.5 Kgf cm−2/127 C, 15 min)	4337.99 UI/g
		Autoclaving (1.5 Kgf cm−2/127 C, 45 min)	4002.07UI/g
Chickpea (Gokce variety from Turkey)	Phytate	Autoclaving (1:2, w/v) after 2-h pre-soaked	47% decreased	[164]
Chickpea (CP-98 variety from Pakistan)	Phytate	Autoclaving at 121°C for 10, 20, 40, 60, and 90 min (after 4h pre-soaking)	31–46% decreased	[165]
	Tannin		33–40%
Bean (Raba cultivar)	TPC	Raw	105.8 mg GAE/100 g	[166]
		Autoclaving	78.6 mg GAE/100 g
Bean (Warta cultivar)	TPC	Raw	93.5 mg GAE/100 g
		Autoclaving	77.1 mg GAE/100 g
Pea (Milwa cultivar)	TPC	Raw	93.4 mg GAE/100 g
		Autoclaving	80.0 mg GAE/100 g
Lentil (Anita cultivar)	TPC	Raw	782.4 mg GAE/100 g
		Autoclaving	533.4 mg GAE/100 g
Canadian cowpea	Tannin	Raw	22.63 mg/g	[130]
		Autoclaving	8.42 mg/g
	Phytic acid	Raw	0.801 g/100 g
		Autoclaving	0.280 g/100 g
	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Raw	2400.91TIU/g
		Autoclaving	0.00
Canadian kidney bean	Tannin	Raw	67.09 mg/g
		Autoclaving	19.54 mg/g
	Phytic acid	Raw	1.188 g/100 g
		Autoclaving	0.384 g/100 g
	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Raw	3583.22TIU/g
		Autoclaving	0.00
Canadian pea	Tannin	Raw	30.93 mg/g
		Autoclaving	2.57 mg/g
	Phytic acid	Raw	0.815 g/100 g
		Autoclaving	0.265 g/100 g
	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Raw	1297.22 TIU/g
		Autoclaving	0.00
Faba bean (Nura)	TFC	Raw	1.69 mg CE/g DW	[167]
		Autoclaving	0.43 mg CE/g DW
	Total proanthocyanidins	Raw	0.28mg CE/g DW
		Autoclaving	0.27mg CE/g DW
	TPC	Raw	10.9 mg GAE/g DW
		Autoclaving	1.80 mg GAE/g DW
Faba bean (Rossa)	TFC	Raw	1.72 mg CE/g DW
		Autoclaving	0.44 mg CE/g DW
	Total proanthocyanidins	Raw	0.13mg CE/g DW
		Autoclaving	0.17mg CE/g DW
	TPC	Raw	11.2 mg GAE/g DW
		Autoclaving	1.9 mg GAE/g DW
Chickpea (H-208)	TPC	Raw	846 mg/100 g	[168]
		Autoclaving	638 mg/100 g (25% decreased)
Chickpea (C-235)	TPC	Raw	835 mg/100 g
		Autoclaving	642 mg/100 g (23% decreased)
Black gram (T-9)	TPC	Raw	842 mg/100 g
		Autoclaving	660 mg/100 g (22% decreased)
Faba bean	Hemagglutinin activity	Raw	3.85 unit/mg	[31]
		Autoclaving	0
	Trypsin inhibitor	Raw	8.13 unit/mg protein
		Autoclaving	1.27 unit/mg protein
Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata	Total free phenolics	Raw	1.21 g/100 g	[169]
		Autoclaving	0.35 g/100 g (71% decreased)
	Tannins	Raw	0.38 g/100 g
		Autoclaving	0.07 g/100 g (82% decreased)
	Hydrogen cyanide	Raw	0.22 mg/100 g
		Autoclaving	0.08 mg/100 g (64% decreased)
	Phytic Acid	Raw	398.28 mg/100 g
		Autoclaving	118.40 mg/100 g (70% decreased)
	Trypsin Inhibitor	Raw	26.48 TIU mg−1 protein
		Autoclaving	2.21 TIU mg−1 protein (92% decreased)
Boiling & Cooking
Common peas	Total phenolic content	Raw	558.2mg GAE/100 g DW	[170]
		Cooking	520.5mg GAE/100 g DW
	Total flavonoid content	Raw	348.3 mg QAE/100 g DW
		Cooking	210.1mg QAE/100 g DW
	Monomeric anthocyanin content	Raw	8.8mg CAE/100 g DW
		Cooking	4.0mg CAE/100 g DW
Pigeon pea	Total phenolic content	Raw	201.4mg GAE/100 g DW
		Cooking	172.4 mg GAE/100 g DW
	Total flavonoid content	Raw	61.7mg QAE/100 g DW
		Cooking	46.5 mg QAE/100 g DW
	Monomeric anthocyanin content	Raw	5.3 mg CAE/100 g DW
		Cooking	2.2 mg CAE/100 g DW
Red beans	Total polyphenol	Raw	84.50 mg GAE/100 g DW	[171]
		Cooking	119.31mg GAE/100 g DW
Black bean	Phenolic acids	Boiling	61% decreased	[172]
Black soybean			62% decreased
Chickpea			56% decreased
Lentil			41% decreased
Pea			37% decreased
Yellow soybean			61% decreased
Faba bean	Hemagglutinin activity	Raw	3.85 unit/mg	[31]
		Cooking	0
	Trypsin inhibitor	Raw	8.13 unit/mg protein
		Cooking	2.32 unit/mg protein
Canavalia ensiformis	Hemagglutinin activity	Raw	13531.8 HU/g	[173]
		Cooking (1st stage Cooking)	102.0 HU/g
		Cooking (2nd stage Cooking)	12.1 HU/g
		Cooking (3-h cook)	<3.6 HU/g
Canavalia braziliensis	Hemagglutinin activity	Raw	10204.1 HU/g
		Cooking (1st stage Cooking)	285.7 HU/g
		Cooking (2nd stage Cooking)	71.4 HU/g
		Cooking (3-h cook)	<3.6 HU/g
Common bean (CNF 0178)	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Raw	119 unit/mg	[174]
		Cooking (60 min)	8.1 unit/mg
		Cooking (90 min)	7.9 unit/mg
Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus)	Trypsin inhibitor activity	Raw	3.4 Tiu/ml	[175]
		Cooking (60 min)	0
	Phytic acid	Raw	234 mg/100 g
		Cooking (60 min)	198 mg/100 g
		Cooking (120 min)	131 mg/100 g
	Tannins	Raw	0.59 mg/g
		Cooking (60 min)	0.31 mg/g
Black beans	TPC	Raw	1.99 mg CE/g	[176]
		Cooking	0.24 mg CE/g
Red beans	TPC	Raw	6.42 mg CE/g
		Cooking	0.12 mg CE/g
White beans	TPC	Raw	0.24 mg CE/g
		Cooking	0.12 mg CE/g
Brown beans	TPC	Raw	9.19 mg CE/g
		Cooking	0.38 mg CE/g

Abbreviations: n.d.=not detected; TPC=Total phenolic content; TFC=Total flavonoid content; CE=Catechin equivalents. GAE= Gallic acid equivalents; FAE =Ferulic acid equivalents; QE=Quercetin equivalents.grams. Moreover, flavones and flavanones levels in studied lentils were noted to decrease, owing to the leaching and oxidative deterioration.[135].

Table 5. Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolics in various pulse samples.

			Bioaccessibility/bioavailability of phenolics
Pulse sample	Phenolic compounds	Processing methods	Gastric phase	Intestinal phase	References
Green lentil	Phenolics	Cooking	21%	50%	[61,221,223–225]
	Flavonoids	Cooking	29%	71%
Lentils	Total phenolics	Raw	28.61 mg/100 g d.w.	36.44 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	43.93 mg/100 g d.w.	50.06 mg/100 g d.w.
Cowpeas	Total phenolics	Raw	19.90 mg/100 g d.w.	22.22 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	35.26 mg/100 g d.w.	40.02 mg/100 g d.w.
Faba beans	Total phenolics	Raw	46.51 mg/100 g d.w.	50.16 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	55.40 mg/100 g d.w.	62.87 mg/100 g d.w.
Chickpeas	Total phenolics	Raw	19.96 mg/100 g d.w.	22.47 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	39.52 mg/100 g d.w.	46.65 mg/100 g d.w.
Soybeans	Total phenolics	Raw	57.29 mg/100 g d.w.	65.57 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	83.53 mg/100 g d.w.	90.27 mg/100 g d.w.
Runner beans	Total phenolics	Raw	20.23 mg/100 g d.w.	23.00 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	34.02 mg/100 g d.w.	40.86 mg/100 g d.w.
Common beans	Total phenolics	Raw	20.63 mg/100 g d.w.	23.25 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	28.30 mg/100 g d.w.	33.49 mg/100 g d.w.
Peas	Total phenolics	Raw	25.35 mg/100 g d.w.	30.39 mg/100 g d.w.
		Cooking	40.71 mg/100 g d.w.	45.38 mg/100 g d.w.

Table 6. Biological potential and health impacts of phytochemicals in pulses.

Health impacts	Pulse source	Phytochemicals and characterization	Model	Biological effects	References
Antiobesity potential	Black turtle bean	Phenolic acids (e.g., gallic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid)	Biochemical experiments	Lipase inhibitory activity IC50: 0.076 mg/mL	[20]
	Lentil	Phenolic acids (e.g., trans-p coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid)	Biochemical experiments	Lipase Inhibitory activity IC50: 6.26–9.26 mg/mL	[21]
		Flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, quercetin, catechin glucoside)
	Adzuki bean	Saponins (Azuki saponin I-VI)	In vivo	Enhanced noradrenaline-induced lipolysis of 152.6%	[19]
		Flavonoids (e.g., catechin, quercetin-3-O-glucoside)		Enhanced noradrenaline-induced lipolysis of 166.1%, weight loss by 12.2%; Significant decreased serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and liver lipid.
Antidiabetes potential	Fermented and non-fermented mung bean	Phenolic compounds	Balb/c mice	200 mg/kg/p.o for 7 days 1000 mg/kg/p.o for 7 days	[234]
	Lupin bean	Phenolic compounds	Biochemical assay	α-amylase inhibition (30–75%) α-glucosidase inhibition (30–70%)	[235]
	Lentil	Phenolic acids (trans-p coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid)	Biochemical assay	α-glucosidase inhibitory activity IC50: 23.08–42.15 mg/mL	[21]
		Flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, catechin glucoside)	Biochemical assay
Antioxidant potential	Mung bean sprouts, vitexin, isovitexin	Phenolic compounds	Male sprague–dawley rats	Antioxidant and myocardial protective activities	[236]
	Methanolic extract of mung bean hulls	Phenolic compounds	In vitro	100 mg/mL	[237]
Antimicrobial potentials	Mung bean sprouts	Phenolic compounds	Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium aphanidermatum, etc.	Antibacterial and antifungal activity 0.5 mg/mL	[238]
		Phenolic compounds	Fusarium verticillioides, F. proliferatum, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus	Antifungal activity 0.5 mg/ml	[239]
Anti-inflammatory	Mung bean sprouts	Phenolic compounds	Wistar strain male albino rats	600 mg/kg per day for 13 days	[240]
		Phenolic compounds	Male Wistar rats	100, 500, 1000 μg/mL for 3 weeks	[241]
		Phenolic compounds	In vitro	100 mg/mL	[242]

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