Trajectories of Executive Functions and ADHD Symptoms in Preschoolers and the Role of Negative Parental Discipline

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Estimated Correlations of the Model Variables (N = 248).

	EF T1	EF T2	EF T3	ADHD symptoms T1	ADHD symptoms T2	ADHD symptoms T3	M	SD
EF T1	-	-	-	-	-	-	−0.36	0.60
EF T2	.67**	-	-	-	-	-	0.12	0.40
EF T3	.57**	.66**	-	-	-	-	0.24	0.24
ADHD symptoms T1	−.39**	−.39**	−.46**	-	-	-	0.19	1.02
ADHD symptoms T2	−.39**	−.36**	−.47**	.72**	-	-	−0.01	0.99
ADHD symptoms T3	−.30**	−.31**	−.46**	.70**	.78**	-	−0.17	0.89
Medication between T1 and T2	−.17**	−.15*	−.33**	.23**	.29**	.32**	1.13	2.54
Medication between T2 and T3	−.18**	−.20**	−.36**	.20**	.41**	.44**	2.33	3.78
Treatment between T1 and T2	−.06	0.00	−.05	.29**	.22**	.18**	1.76	2.97
Treatment between T2 and T3	−.05	−.01	−.02	.41**	.20**	.21**	0.74	2.04

Note. EF scores are the factor scores with effects coding saved from Mplus; ADHD symptom scores are z-scores; *p < .05, **p < .001.

Table 2. Independent Samples t-tests Comparing Low and Medium to high Negative Discipline Groups

	Low negative discipline (n = 141)		Medium to high negative discipline (n = 107)
	M	SD	M	SD	df	t	p
ADHD symptoms T1	−0.06	1.01	0.51	0.93	246	−4.61	<.001
ADHD symptoms T2	−0.26	0.97	0.31	0.98	227	−4.34	<.001
ADHD symptoms T3	−0.46	0.84	0.19	0.92	221	−5.47	<.001
EF T1	−0.34	0.61	−0.40	0.58	246	0.70	.486
EF T2	0.15	0.37	0.07	0.43	238	1.40	.163
EF T3	0.27	0.33	0.19	0.34	235	1.89	.060

Note. EF scores are the factor scores with effects coding saved from Mplus; ADHD symptom scores are z-scores

Figure 1. Standardized coefficients of the longitudinal measurement model of EF. NB = Nine Boxes, DA = Delayed Alternations, GNG = Go/No-Go, SD = Snack Delay, SS = Shape School-Inhibitory condition. *p < .05, **p < .001

Table 3. Results of the multivariate growth curve (parallel process) model using EF and ADHD symptoms

	Intercept growth factors (Unstandardized)			Linear slope growth factors (Unstandardized)				Quadratic slope growth factors (Unstandardized)
	Mean	Variance		Mean		Variance		Mean		Variance
EF	−1.13**	0.23**		1.01**		0.01		−0.17**		-
ADHD symptoms	0.37**	0.81**		−0.26**		0.04		-		-
Correlations between growth factors (Unstandardized)
			Int EF		Int ADHD		L slope EF		L slope ADHD
Int EF			-		-		-		-
Int ADHD			−0.21**		-		-		-
L slope EF			−0.06*		0.03		-		-
L slope ADHD			−0.21		−0.09		−0.01		-
Regression coefficients (Unstandardized)
					Int ADHD				L slope ADHD
ODD diagnosis					0.20				0.07

Note. Int = Intercept, L slope = linear slope, Q slope = quadratic slope; *p < .05, **p < .001.

Table 4. Model fit indices and model comparison tests for the multigroup models

Model	AIC		BIC
1: Fully constrained model	2039.62		2127.46
2: Fully unconstrained model	2051.33		2212.95
3: EF variances released	2042.97		2141.35
4: ADHD variances released	2042.05		2140.42
5: Intercept EF released	2047.24		2142.11
6: Linear slope EF released	2052.68		2147.55
7: Intercept ADHD released	2012.91		2107.77
8: Linear slope ADHD released	2016.75		2118.64
9: Correlation intercept EF and intercept ADHD released	2014.81		2113.19
10: Correlation slope EF and slope ADHD released	2015.78		2114.16
11: Correlation intercept EF and slope ADHD released	2015.85		2114.22
12: Correlation slope EF and intercept ADHD released	2013.34		2111.72
Model comparisons:
	ΔAIC	ΔBIC		Preferred model
Model 1 & 2	−11.71	−85.49		Model 1
Model 1 & 3	−3.35	−12.89		Model 1
Model 1 & 4	−2.43	−12.96		Model 1
Model 1 & 5	−7.62	−14.65		Model 1
Model 1 & 6	−13.06	−20.09		Model 1
Model 1 & 7	26.71	19.69		Model 7
Model 7 & 8	−3.84	−10.87		Model 7
Model 7 & 9	−1.90	−5.42		Model 7
Model 7 & 10	−2.87	−6.39		Model 7
Model 7 & 11	−2.94	−6.45		Model 7
Model 7 & 12	−0.43	−3.95		Model 7

Table 5. Results of the Multigroup Parallel Process Model (PPM) using EF and ADHD symptoms

Mean coefficients (Unstandardized)
			Low negative discipline				Medium to high negative discipline
Mean int EF			−1.169				−1.169
Mean L slope EF			1.059				1.059
Mean Q slope EF			−0.185				−0.185
Mean int ADHD			0.179				0.670
Mean L slope ADHD			−0.267				−0.267
Variance coefficients (Unstandardized)
			Low negative discipline					Medium to high negative discipline
Variance int EF			0.240					0.240
Variance L slope EF			0.017					0.017
Variance int ADHD			0.842					0.450
Variance L slope ADHD			0.023					0.023
Correlations between growth factors (Unstandardized)
	Low negative discipline					Medium to high negative discipline
	Int EF	Int ADHD	L slope EF	L slope ADHD		Int EF			Int ADHD	L slope EF	L slope ADHD
Int EF	-	-	-	-		-			-	-	-
Int ADHD	−0.19**	-	-	-		−0.19**			-	-	-
L slope EF	−0.06*	0.03	-	-		−0.06*			0.03	-	-
L slope ADHD	0.05	−0.06	−0.01	-		0.05			−0.004	−0.01	-
Regression coefficients (Unstandardized)
	Low negative discipline					Medium to high negative discipline
		Int ADHD		L slope ADHD					Int ADHD		L slope ADHD
ODD diagnosis		0.16		0.08					0.16		0.08

Note. Int = Intercept, L slope = linear slope, Q slope = quadratic slope; *p < .05, **p < .001; Bolded coefficients differ significantly between groups at p < .005.