Estimations of emission factors for fertilizer-induced direct N₂O emissions from agricultural soils in Japan: Summary of available data

Figures & data

Figure 1  Relationship between total N input (kg N ha−1) and N2O emission (kg N ha−1) from upland fields; measurement period more than 90 days.

Table 1a N2O-N emissions and fertilizer-induced emission factors from upland fields with the application of chemical or organic fertilizer

Reference	Location	Soil type	Crop	Total N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Chemical N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Organic N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Crop residue (kg N ha^−1)	Type of chemical N	Type of organic N	Measurement period (days)	N2O-N emission (kg N ha^−1)	Fertilizer- induced emission factor (%)
Well-drained soil
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2002	Ibaraki	Andosol	multi	400	400	0	0	CN, AP		365	0.39
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2002	Ibaraki	Andosol	multi	250	250	0	0	CN, AP		365	0.50
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003a	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		OC	365	0.45
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003a	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		CM	365	0.12
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003a	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	150	0	0	U		365	0.19
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003a	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		FM	127	0.37
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003a	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		DC	127	0.11
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003a	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	150	0	0	U		127	0.25
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003b	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		PM	365	1.84
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003b	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		SM	365	0.61
Akiyama & Tsuruta 2003b	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	150	150	0	0	U		365	0.45
Akiyama et al. 2000	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	200	200	0	0	U, AS		101	0.16
Hou & Tsuruta 2003	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	250	250	0	0	U		194	0.78	0.16
Hou & Tsuruta 2003	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	250	250	0	0	U		194	0.78	0.16
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	cereal	129.6	110	0	19.6	A(COM)		365	0.56
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	cereal	131.2	110	0	21.2	A(COM)		365	0.53
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	legume	80	40	0	40	A(COM)		365	0.19
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	legume	84.1	40	0	44.1	A(COM)		365	0.31
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	veg	237.1	150	0	87.1	AN(COM)		365	0.34
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	veg	279.4	150	0	129.4	AN(COM)		365	2.36
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	veg	69.3	60	0	9.3	AN(COM)		365	0.09
Koga et al. 2004	Hokkaido	Andosol	veg	289.9	220	0	69.9	AN(COM)		365	0.82
Koshiba et al. 1996	Gunma	Andosol	cereal	240	150	90	0	unknown	CM	102	0.37
Koshiba et al. 1996	Gunma	Andosol	cereal	240	150	90	0	unknown	CM	120	0.37
Koshiba et al. 1996	Gunma	Andosol	cereal	240	150	90	0	unknown	CM	112	0.73
Koshiba et al. 1996	Gunma	Andosol	cereal	450	0	450	0		CM	102	0.66
Koshiba et al. 1996	Gunma	Andosol	cereal	450	0	450	0		CM	120	0.65
Koshiba et al. 1996	Gunma	Andosol	cereal	450	0	450	0		CM	112	1.23
Li et al. 2002	Ibaraki	Andosol	cereal	150.11	150	0	0.11	AS		95	0.60
Li et al. 2002	Chiba	Andosol	veg	150	150	0	0	AS		93	0.22	0.07
Li et al. 2002	Chiba	Andosol	veg	300	300	0	0	AS		93	0.32	0.07
Li et al. 2002	Chiba	Andosol	veg	150	0	150	0		CM	93	0.30	0.13
Li et al. 2002	Chiba	Andosol	veg	300	0	300	0		CM	93	0.45	0.11
Mori et al. 2005	Tochigi	Andosol	grassland	200	200	0	0	unknown		365	0.39
Mori et al. 2005	Tochigi	Andosol	grassland	200	200	0	0	unknown		365	1.59
Mori et al. 2005	Tochigi	Andosol	grassland	200	200	0	0	unknown		365	0.67
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	600	600	0	0	AS		291	2.25	0.34
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	1000	1000	0	0	AS		291	6.28	0.61
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	600	600	0	0	U, A(COM)		325	1.90
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	600	600	unknown	0	U, A(COM)	RSC	325	1.56
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	0	0	unknown	0		RSC	325	0.45
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	600	600	0	0	U, A(COM)		255	2.26
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	600	600	unknown	0	U, A(COM)	RSC	255	3.72
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	0	0	unknown	0		RSC	255	0.82
Noda 2001	Shimane	Yellow Soil	veg	200	200	0	0	AS		201		0.21
Noda 2001	Shimane	Yellow Soil	veg	200	200	0	0	AN		201		0.31
Shoji et al. 2001	Fukushima	Terrestrial Regosols	cereal	150	150	0	0	U		160	3.15	2.02
Suzuki 1996	Tochigi	Andosol	multi	310	310	0	0	AS		167	0.63
Suzuki 1996	Tochigi	Andosol	multi	310	310	0	0	AS		163	0.21
Suzuki 1996	Tochigi	Andosol	multi	465	465	0	0	AS		167	0.98
Suzuki 1996	Tochigi	Andosol	multi	465	465	0	0	AS		163	0.56
Suzuki 1996	Tochigi	Andosol	multi	440.7	310	130.7	0	AS	RSC	167	0.83
Suzuki 1996	Tochigi	Andosol	multi	511	310	201	0	AS	RSC	163	0.26
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Andosol	veg	510	260	250	0	COM	RSC	127	0.38
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Andosol	veg	800	260	540	0	COM	SM	127	2.57
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Andosol	veg	460	260	200	0	COM	BC	127	0.81
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	veg	510	260	250	0	COM	RSC	136	0.73
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	veg	800	260	540	0	COM	SM	136	1.21
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	veg	460	260	200	0	COM	BC	136	0.11
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Andosol	multi	780	310	470	0	unknown	SM	253	4.68
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Andosol	multi	850	310	540	0	unknown	SM	256	2.93
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Andosol	multi	1160	310	850	0	unknown	SM	267	2.18
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	multi	780	310	470	0	unknown	SM	256	2.24
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	multi	850	310	540	0	unknown	SM	265	1.29
Wakazawa & Kosugi 2001	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	multi	1160	310	850	0	unknown	SM	267	1.37
Watanabe et al. 1997	Ibaraki	Andosol	grassland	570	0	570	0		CM, UR	112		0.09
Watanabe et al. 1997	Ibaraki	Andosol	grassland	955	0	955	0		SM, UR	112		0.10
Yan et al. 2001	Ibaraki	Andosol	cereal	150	150	0	0	U		138	0.54	0.27
Yan et al. 2001	Ibaraki	Andosol	cereal	250	250	0	0	U		138	0.51	0.15

Table 1b –Poorly drained soil

Reference	Location	Soil type	Crop	Total N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Chemical N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Organic N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Crop residue (kg N ha^−1)	Type of chemical N	Type of organic N	Measurement period (days)	N2O-N emission (kg N ha^−1)	Fertilizer- induced emission factor (%)
Kumagai and Kanno 1997	Yamagata	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	250	250	0	0	unknown		126	3.65
Kusa et al. 2002	Hokkaido	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	270	270	0	0	AN		208	7.80
Kusa et al. 2002	Hokkaido	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	310	310	0	0	AN		183	3.50
Kusa et al. 2002	Hokkaido	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	280	280	0	0	AN		185	5.30
Kusa et al. 2002	Hokkaido	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	320	320	0	0	AN		200	4.70
Kusa et al. 2002	Hokkaido	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	322	322	0	0	AN		184	9.90
Kusa et al. 2002	Hokkaido	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	242	242	0	0	AN		184	15.60
Kusa et al. in press	Hokkaido	Wet Andosol	cereal	128	98	30	0	MIX	CM	198	8.30
Kusa et al. in press	Hokkaido	Wet Andosol	cereal	128	98	30	0	MIX	CM	199	23.30
Kusa et al. in press	Hokkaido	Wet Andosol	cereal	128	98	30	0	MIX	CM	197	15.50
Nishimura et al. 2005	Ibaraki	Gray Lowland Soil	cereal	60	60	0	0	U		365	2.41
Nishimura et al. 2005	Ibaraki	Gray Lowland Soil	multi	120	120	0	0	U		392	3.19
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	200	0	0	AS		94	2.91	1.28
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	0	200	0		CM	94	1.51	0.58
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	0	200	0		FM	94	6.95	3.30
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	188	12	0	AS	CM	94	2.88	1.26
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	170	30	0	AS	CM	94	3.23	1.44
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	140	60	0	AS	CM	94	1.89	0.77
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	109	91	0	AS	CM	94	1.88	0.76
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	188	12	0	AS	FM	94	1.60	0.62
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	200	109	91	0	AS	FM	94	5.54	2.59
Shiratori et al. 1999	Niigata	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	400	400	0	0	AN		120	15.39
Shiratori et al. 1999	Niigata	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	400	400	0	0	AN		120	7.22
Shiratori et al. 1999	Niigata	Brown Lowland Soil	veg	400	400	0	0	AN		120	1.09
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	cereal	90	90	0	0	COM		198	2.26
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	cereal	90	90	0	0	COM		187	0.77
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	cereal	90	90	0	0	COM		198	2.67
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	1000	0	1000	0		RSC	152	1.05
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	1000	0	1000	0		SM	152	1.42
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	1000	0	1000	0		BC	152	0.40
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	500	0	500	0		RSC	152	0.11
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	500	0	500	0		SM	152	0.80
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	500	0	500	0		BC	152	0.07
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	200	0	200	0		OP	156	2.41
Wakazawa & Kosugi, 2001	Shizuoka	Gray Lowland Soil	veg	200	200	0	0	AS		122	0.24
Measurement period was more than 90 days. Measurements with slow-release fertilizer and nitrification inhibitors are not included. veg, vegetable; multi, multiple cropping in a year; U, urea; AS, ammonia sulfate; CN, calcium nitrate; A, ammonium; AN, ammonium nitrate; MIX, mixed fertilizer; COM, complex fertilizer; AP, ammonium phosphate; CM, cattle manure; SM, swine manure; FM, fish meal; BC, bark compost; PM, poultry manure; DC, dried cattle excreta; UR, urine; OC, oil cake; RSC, rice straw compost; OP, mixed organic fertilizer pellets.

Table 2 Summary of N2O-N emissions and fertilizer-induced emission factors from Japanese upland fields (except tea fields)

Soil drainage^†	n	Mean	Standard deviation	Median	Min.	Max.
N2O-N emission (kg N ha^−1)
Well-drained soil	67	1.03 a**	1.14	0.61	0.09	6.28
Poorly drained soil	35	4.78 b	5.36	2.88	0.07	23.3
Fertilizer-induced N2O-N emission factor (%)
Well-drained soil	15	0.32 a**	0.49	0.16	0.07	2.02
Poorly drained soil	9	1.40 b	0.95	1.26	0.57	3.30
Estimated emission factor for all soil		0.62^‡	0.48^‡‡
Measurement period more than 90 days. ^†Soil drainage was categorized into two classes on the basis of soil type: (1) well-drained soil: Andosol, Terrestrial Regosols, Yellow Soil, (2) poorly drained soil: Wet Andosol, Brown Lowland Soil, Gley Lowland Soil, Gray Lowland Soil, Gray Upland Soil, alluvial soil.
^‡Weighted by distribution of soil type well-drained soil 72%; poorly drained soil 28% (Soil Survey Committee of Japan 1991).
^‡‡Standard deviation was calculated according to the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report of Japan (Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan 2005). Uncertainty of activity data (soil type distribution data from Soil Survey Committee of Japan 1991) was assumed to be standard deviation of 5%. Means followed by “a” or “b” are significantly different (P < 0.01) using a t-test carried out with log-transformed data.

Table 3 Background N2O-N emissions from upland fields

Reference	Location	Soil type	Crop	Measurement period (days)	N2O emission (g N ha^−1 day^−1)
Well-drained soil
Akai et al. 2001	Okayama	Andosol	grassland	60	1.51
Akai et al. 2001	Okayama	Andosol	grassland	60	0.49
Cheng et al. 2002	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	80	1.53
Hou & Tsuruta 2003	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	194	1.96
Li et al. 2002	Chiba	Andosol	veg	93	1.15
Nishiwaki & Inoue 1996	Aichi	Yellow Soil	multi	291	0.69
Shoji et al. 2001	Fukushima	Terrestrial Regosols	cereal	160	0.75
Tanizaki 1992	Ibaraki	Andosol	veg	72	0.00
Yan et al. 2001	Ibaraki	Andosol	cereal	138	0.91
Poorly drained soil
Ohashi 2000	Hokkaido	Brown lowland Soil	veg	94	3.83
Measurement period more than 60 days.veg, vegetable; multi, multiple cropping in a year.

Table 4 Summary of daily background N2O-N emission and estimated annual background N2O-N emission from Japanese upland fields

Soil drainage^†	n	Mean	Standard deviation	Median	Min.	Max.
Daily N2O-N emission (g N ha^−1 day^−1)
Well-drained soil	7	1.00 a**	0.63	0.91	0.00	1.96
Poorly drained soil	1	3.83 b		3.83	3.83	3.83
Estimated annual N2O-N emission (kg N ha^−1 year^−1)^§
Well-drained soil		0.36
Poorly drained soil		1.40
Estimated background emission for all soil		0.65^‡	0.45^‡‡
Measurement period more than 60 days. ^†Soil drainage was categorized into two classes on the basis of soil type: (1) well-drained soil: Andosol, Terrestrial Regosols, Yellow Soil, (2) poorly drained soil: Wet Andosol, Brown Lowland Soil, Gley Lowland Soil, Gray Lowland Soil, Gray Upland Soil, alluvial soil.
^§Annual emissions were estimated by integrating daily emission over a year.
^‡Weighted by distribution of soil type well-drained soil 72%; poorly drained soil 28% (Soil Survey Committee of Japan 1991).
^‡‡Standard deviation was calculated according to the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report of Japan (Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan 2005). Uncertainty of activity data (soil type distribution data from Soil Survey Committee of Japan 1991) was assumed to be standard deviation of 5%. Means followed by “a” or “b” are significantly different (P < 0.01) using a t-test.

Figure 2  Relationship between total N input (kg N ha−1) and N2O emission (kg N ha−1) from tea fields; measurement period more than 90 days.

Table 5 N2O-N emissions from tea fields with the application of chemical or organic fertilizer

Reference	Location	Soil type	Total N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Chemical N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Organic N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Crop residue (kg N ha^−1)	Type of chemical N	Type of organic N	Meas- urement period (days)	N2O emission (kg N ha^−1)
Maeda et al. 2001	Aichi	Yellow Soil	727	727	0		unknown		327	61.00
Maeda et al. 2001	Aichi	Brown lowland Soil	826	826	0		unknown		331	25.00
Tokuda & Hayatsu 2004	Shizuoka	Andosol	600	600	0		AS		365	0.60
Tokuda & Hayatsu 2004	Shizuoka	Andosol	1200	1200	0		AS		365	25.22
Tokuda & Hayatsu 2004	Shizuoka	Andosol	600	600	0		AS		365	3.54
Tokuda & Hayatsu 2004	Shizuoka	Andosol	600	600	0		AS		365	3.08
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	300	300	0		AS		209	4.33
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	600	600	0		AS		209	12.70
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	900	900	0		AS		209	29.75
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	1200	1200	0		AS		209	19.60
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	300	Unknown	Unknown		AS	OC	209	2.39
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	500	Unknown	Unknown		AS	OC	209	3.76
Tokuda et al. 2006	Shizuoka	Yellow Soil	720	720	0		AS		209	13.59
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	41.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	39.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	42.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	45.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	32.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	33.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	32.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	33.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	128	0	128			C	365	3.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	128	0	128			C	365	3.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	20.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		U, AS, A(COM)	FM, OC, C	365	29.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		AN	FM, OC, C	365	34.00
Tokunaga et al. 1996	Yamaguchi	Terrestrial Regosols	894	476	418		AN	FM, OC, C	365	41.00
Measurement period more than 209 days. Measurements with slow-release fertilizer and nitrification inhibitor are not included. U, urea; AS, ammonia sulfate; A, ammonium; AN, ammonium nitrate; COM, complex fertilizer; FM, fish meal; OC, oilcake; C, compost.

Table 6 Summary of N2O-N emission (kg N ha−1) and fertilizer-induced emission factor (%) from Japanese tea fields

	n	Mean	Standard deviation	Median	Min.	Max.
N2O-N emission (kg N ha^−1)
	26	24.3	16.3	27.11	2.39	61.0
Estimated fertilizer-induced emission factor (%)^†
	26	2.82	1.80	3.02	0.35	8.25
^†Background emission was assumed to be 1 kg ha^−1 year^−1 (IPCC default value) because no reliable zero-N control data were available. One emission measurement that was smaller than the estimated background emission was excluded.

Figure 3  Relationship between total N input (kg N ha−1) and N2O emission (kg N ha−1) from rice fields; measurement period more than 90 days.

Table 7 N2O-N emissions from rice paddy fields with the application of chemical fertilizer

Reference	Location	Soil type	Total N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Chemical N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Organic N application rate (kg N ha^−1)	Crop residue (kg N ha^−1)	Type of chemical N	Type of organic N	Measurement period (days)	N2O emission (kg N ha^−1)
Minami 1987	Ibaraki	alluvial soil	100	100	0	0	unknown		120	0.33
Minami 1987	Ibaraki	Andosol	100	100	0	0	unknown	–	120	0.55
Minami 1987	Ibaraki	Andosol	90	90	0	0	unknown	–	139	0.27
Nishimura et al. 2004	Ibaraki	Gray Lowland Soil	122.4	90	0	32.4	U	–	365	0.60
Yagi et al. 1996	Ibaraki	Gley Soil	117	90	0	27	A(COM)	–	150	0.07
Yagi et al. 1996	Ibaraki	Gley soil	117	90	0	27	A(COM)	–	150	0.07
Measurement period more than 90 days. Measurements with slow-release fertilizer and nitrification inhibitor are not included. U, urea; A, ammonium; COM, complex fertilizer.

Table 8 Summary of N2O-N emission (kg N ha−1) from Japanese rice paddy fields

Soil drainage^†	n	Mean	Standard deviation	Median	Min.	Max.
Well-drained soil	2	0.41a*	0.20	0.41	0.27	0.55
Poorly drained soil	4	0.33a	0.27	0.33	0.07	0.60
All soil	7	0.36	0.24	0.33	0.07	0.60
Measurement period more than 90 days. ^†Soil drainage was categorized into two classes on the basis of soil type: (1) well-drained soil: Andosol, Terrestrial Regosols, Yellow Soil, (2) poorly drained soil: Wet Andosol, Brown Lowland Soil, Gley Lowland Soil, Gray Lowland Soil, Gray Upland Soil, alluvial soil. Means followed by ‘a’ or ‘b’ are significantly different (P < 0.01) using a t-test.

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