Socioeconomic Inequality and Risk of Sarcopenia in Community-Dwelling Older Adults

Figures & data

Figure 1 Study inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Table 1 Characteristics of the Study Population Overall and by Gender (n = 3342)

	Overall (n= 3342)	Males (n= 1567)	Females (n= 1775)
Probable sarcopenia, n (%)	783 (23.4)	377 (24.1)	406 (22.9)
Age, mean ± SD (years)	68.9 ± 6.3	69.0 ± 6.2	68.8 ± 6.4
Age categories, n (%)
60–64	1039 (31.1)	455 (29.0)	584 (32.9)
65–69	885 (26.5)	435 (27.8)	450 (25.4)
70–74	650 (19.4)	321 (20.5)	329 (18.5)
75–79	441 (13.2)	210 (13.4)	231 (13.0)
80+	327 (9.8)	146 (9.3)	181 (10.2)
SEP: educational attainment, n (%)
≤ Primary level	1166 (34.9)	607 (38.7)	559 (31.5)
Secondary level	1207 (36.1)	516 (32.9)	691 (38.9)
Third level	969 (29.0)	444 (28.3)	525 (29.6)
Body mass index (kg/m^2)
Underweight (≥15–18.5)	19 (0.6)	4 (0.3)	15 (0.8)
Normal weight (≥18.5–25)	702 (21.0)	235 (15.0)	467 (26.3)
Overweight (≥25–30)	1433 (42.9)	721 (46.0)	712 (40.1)
Obese (≥30)	1188 (35.5)	607 (38.7)	581 (32.7)
Physical activity level, n (%)
Low	1094 (32.7)	420 (26.8)	674 (38.0)
Moderate	1191 (35.6)	534 (34.1)	657 (37.0)
High	1057 (31.6)	613 (39.1)	444 (25.0)
Smoking status, n (%)
Never smoked	1496 (44.8)	529 (33.8)	967 (54.5)
Past smoker	1409 (42.2)	823 (52.5)	586 (33.0)
Current smoker	437 (13.1)	215 (13.7)	222 (12.5)
Alcohol consumption, n (%)
Alcohol consumer	2156 (70.4)	1071 (75.1)	1085 (66.3)
Non-consumer	908 (29.6)	356 (24.9)	552 (33.7)
Long-term conditions, n (%)
0	626 (18.7)	318 (20.3)	308 (17.4)
1	904 (27.0)	431 (27.5)	473 (26.6)
≥2	1812 (54.2)	818 (52.2)	994 (56.0)
Osteoarthritis, n (%)	587 (17.6)	156 (10.0)	431 (24.3)

Figure 2 Prevalence of probable sarcopenia amongst community-dwelling older adults based on socioeconomic position as defined by educational attainment (n= 3342, p<0.001).

Table 2 Characteristics of the Population Group Based on the Presence of Probable Sarcopenia as Defined by the EWGSOP2 Criteria for Weak Hand Grip Strength (n = 3342)

	Reference ^a No Probable Sarcopenia (n= 2559)	Probable Sarcopenia (n= 783)	p-value
Age, mean ± SD (years)	67.9 ± 5.9	72.3 ± 6.7	<0.001*
Gender, n (%)
Female	1369 (53.5)	406 (51.9)	0.419
Male	1190 (46.5)	377 (48.1)	0.419
Age categories, n (%)
60–64	907 (35.4)	132 (16.9)	<0.001*
65–69	735 (28.7)	150 (19.2)	<0.001*
70–74	508 (19.9)	142 (18.1)	0.288
75–79	265 (10.4)	176 (22.5)	<0.001*
80+	144 (5.6)	183 (23.4)	<0.001*
SEP: educational attainment
≤ Primary level	829 (32.4)	337 (43.0)	<0.001*
Secondary level	936 (36.6)	271 (34.6)	0.316
Third level	794 (31.0)	175 (22.3)	<0.001*
Body mass index (kg/m^2)
Underweight (≥15–18.5)	10 (0.4)	9 (1.1)	0.025*
Normal weight (≥18.5–25)	509 (19.9)	193 (24.6)	0.004*
Overweight (≥25–30)	1128 (44.1)	305 (39.0)	0.011*
Obese (≥30)	912 (35.6)	276 (35.2)	0.842
Physical activity level, n (%)
Low	755 (29.5)	339 (43.3)	<0.001*
Moderate	922 (36.0)	269 (34.4)	0.392
High	882 (34.5)	175 (22.3)	<0.001*
Smoking status, n (%)
Never smoked	1151 (45.0)	345 (44.1)	0.652
Past smoker	1068 (41.7)	341 (43.6)	0.368
Current smoker	340 (13.3)	97 (12.4)	0.514
Alcohol consumption, n (%)
Alcohol consumer	1700 (72.1)	456 (64.7)	<0.001*
Non-consumer	659 (27.9)	249 (35.3)	<0.001*
Long-term conditions, n (%)
0	523 (20.4)	103 (13.2)	<0.001*
1	731 (28.6)	173 (22.1)	<0.001*
≥2	1305 (51.0)	507 (64.8)	<0.001*
Osteoarthritis, n (%)	417 (16.3)	170 (21.7)	<0.001*

Notes: ^aDid not meet the criteria for probable sarcopenia based on the EWGSOP2 cut-offs for weak hand grip strength. Chi-squared X² and independent Student’s t-test used for comparisons between groups (*p <0.05).

Table 3 Multivariable Logistic Regression Model of Risk Factors for Probable Sarcopenia (N= 3342)

Risk Factor	Association Between Probable Sarcopenia and Risk Factor
	Odds Ratio (OR)	95% CI for OR (Lower-Upper)	p-value Column
Age (years, continuous)	1.10	1.08–1.11	<0.001*
Gender (male)	1.19	1.00–1.42
Educational attainment			0.004*
Third level	Reference
Secondary level	1.26	1.00–1.58
≤Primary level	1.48	1.17–1.87	<0.001*
Physical activity
High level	Reference
Moderate level	1.26	1.01–1.59	0.048*
Low level	1.67	1.32–2.11	<0.001*
Body mass index (BMI)			<0.001*
Normal range (≥18.5–25 kg/m^2)	Reference
Overweight (≥25–30 kg/m^2)	0.74	0.58–0.93	0.010*
Obese (≥30 kg/m^2)	0.64	0.50–0.83	<0.001*
Underweight (≥15–18.5 kg/m^2)	2.72	0.85–6.10
Smoking status
Never smoked	Reference
Past smoker	0.96	0.79–1.17
Current smoker	0.96	0.72–1.29
Alcohol consumption
Non-consumer	Reference
Alcohol consumer	1.02	0.83–1.24
Long-term conditions
0	Reference
1	1.14	0.84–1.53
≥2	1.44	1.08–1.93	0.013*
Osteoarthritis	1.34	1.05–1.68	0.018*

Note: p-value reported for statistically significant values only (*p<0.05).

Abbreviations: CI, confidence intervals; OR, odds ratio; BMI, body mass index.