Enhancing cognitive functioning in the elderly: multicomponent vs resistance training

Figures & data

Table 1 Main group characteristics and medical condition distributions across groups

Group	MCT n = 22; F = 15	PRT n = 20; F = 11
Age (years)	F = 69.0 ± 2.8	F = 70.5 ± 3.9
	M = 71.4 ± 2.9	M = 69.1 ± 3.7
BMI (kg/m^2)	F = 26.2 ± 3.1	F = 24.0 ± 3.6
	M = 27.1 ± 2.9	M = 26.8 ± 3.2
Stature (cm)	F = 164.3 ± 7.0	F = 162.6 ± 6.1
	M = 173.8 ± 5.2	M = 172.8 ± 5.5
Weight (kg)	F = 70.6 ± 6.2	F = 63.2 ± 8.0
	M = 81.9 ± 10.1	M = 80.2 ± 12.1
Pathologies	Hypertension (5)	Hypertension (5)
	High cholesterol (4)	High cholesterol (4)
	Anemia (1)	Anemia (1)
Chronic pharmacological treatment	Aspirin (5)	Aspirin (1)
	Statin (5)	Statin (2)
	ACE (2)	ACE (3)
	Calcium antagonist (2)	Diuretics (2)
	Diuretics (1)	Calcium antagonist (2)
		Bisphosphonates (1)
Falls in previous 12 months*	4 subjects	3 subjects
Multiple treatment	4 (two drugs for hypertension or as preventive; ie, aspirin and statin)	3 (two drugs for hypertension or as preventive; ie, aspirin and statin)

Notes: The number of subjects is reported in parentheses.

* No more than one fall was reported.

Abbreviations: MCT, multicomponent training; PRT, progressive resistance training; n, number; F, female; M, male; BMI, body mass index; ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor.

Table 2 Executive function measures (mean ± SD) at T₁, T₂, and T₃

Adjacency
T1	31.3 ± 13.2
T2	27.5 ± 14.2a
T3	22.1 ± 12.1b
	F1,37 = 13.44†; P = 0.000; ηp^2 = 0.27; 1–β = 1.0
Turning point index
T1	86.9 ± 16.1
T2	89.0 ± 17.6
T3	94.8 ± 12.7b
	F1,37 = 8.41†; P = 0.001; ηp^2 = 0.19; 1–β = 0.96
Runs
T1	1.1 ± 0.8
T2	1.2 ± 0.8
T3	0.9 ± 0.3b
	F1,37 = 4.68†; P = 0.012; ηp^2 = 0.11; 1–β = 0.77 F1,37 = 2.93‡; P = 0.060; ηp^2 = 0.07; 1–β = 0.55
ΔTrail making
T1	44.1 ± 29.7
T2	31.2 ± 23.9a
T3	36.3 ± 25.2
	F1,40 = 4.06†; P = 0.021; ηp^2 = 0.096; 1–β = 0.71

Notes: Analysis of variance and post hoc results are also reported. Data are collapsed across groups (n = 42);

† main effect for time;

‡ time*training interaction;

a significantly different from T₁;

b significantly different from T₂ at P < 0.025 (Bonferroni correction).

Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; T₁, baseline; T₂, control; T₃, following training; ηp2, partial eta squared.

Table 3 Functional mobility measures (WS) and physical fitness (mean ± SD) at T₁, T₂, and T₃

Maximal WS (m/second)
T1	1.91 ± 0.21
T2	1.95 ± 0.24
T3	2.03 ± 0.22b
	F1,40 = 10.6†; P = 0.000; ηp^2 = 0.20; 1–β = 0.98
Talking WS (m/second)
T1	1.65 ± 0.24
T2	1.74 ± 0.26a
T3	1.81 ± 0.33
	F1,40 = 5.5†; P = 0.006; ηp^2 = 0.12; 1–β = 0.84
Box WS (m/second)
T1	1.97 ± 0.26
T2	2.04 ± 0.28
T3	2.11 ± 0.29b
	F1,40 = 9.7†; P = 0.000; ηp^2 = 2.00; 1–β = 0.98
VO2max(mL/kg/minute)
T1	26.3 ± 6.0
T2	25.8 ± 5.7
T3	27.2 ± 6.6
	F1,40 = 2.3†; P = 0.110; ηp^2 = 0.05; 1–β = 0.45
Knee extensors torque (Nm)
T1	100.2 ± 30.8
T2	101.3 ± 32.0
T3	107.6 ± 20.1b
	F1,40 = 4.3†; P = 0.017; ηp^2 = 0.10; 1–β = 0.73
Knee flexors torque (Nm)
T1	52.6 ± 17.4
T2	53.0 ± 20.7
T3	60.0 ± 20.1b
	F1,40 = 13.8†; P = 0.000; ηp^2 = 0.26; 1–β = 0.10
	F1,40 = 6.5‡; P = 0.002; ηp^2 = 0.14; 1–β = 0.90

Notes: Analysis of variance and post hoc results are also reported. Data are collapsed across groups (n = 42).

† Main effect for time;

‡ time*training interaction;

a significantly different from T₁;

b significantly different from T₂ at P < 0.025 (Bonferroni correction).

Abbreviations: WS, walking speed; SD, standard deviation; T₁, baseline; T₂, control; T₃, following training; hp2, partial eta squared; VO_2max, maximal oxygen uptake.

Figure 1 Mediation analysis for the effects of training type on posttraining gains in cognitive inhibitory function indexes mediated by posttraining gains in muscular strength.(A) TPI mediation model; (B) Runs mediation model.

Notes: Regression coefficients for changes in executive functions mediated by muscle strength gains (with SE in parentheses and associated P-values) are reported as follows: a = effects of the independent variable on the mediator; b = effect of the mediator on the dependent variable or total effect; c = effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable; c₁ = the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable after accounting for the mediator or the direct effect. R² values of regressions with the mediator (without the mediator in parentheses) and Sobel test results are also reported. ΔKnee flexors torque = pre- and posttraining change in muscle strength. ΔTPI = pre- and posttraining change in the TPI (inhibition index). ΔRuns = pre- and posttraining change in Runs (inhibition index).
Abbreviation: TPI, Turning Point Index.