Water- versus land-based exercise in elderly subjects: effects on physical performance and body composition

Figures & data

Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the study participants (mean ± standard deviation)

	Male (n = 29)	Female (n = 30)	Total (n = 59)
Age (years)	72.1 ± 6.1	72.3 ± 4.7	71.2 ± 5.4
Height (cm)	169.2 ± 7.3	156.2 ± 5.5	162.8 ± 9.2
Body mass (kg)	76.1 ± 11.3	59.7 ± 6.5	68.1 ± 6.5
BMI (kg · m^−2)	26.6 ± 3.0	24.5 ± 2.7	25.6 ± 2.7

Abbreviation: BMI, body mass index.

Figure 1 Recruitment and allocation of the study participants.

Table 2 Progression of the 6-month aquatic- and land-based programs

Month	Sets	Exercise time (sec)	Recovery time (sec)	RPE
1	3	45	45	<13
2–4	3	60	30	13–14
5–6	3	60	30	15–16

Notes: Exercise and recovery time are expressed in seconds (sec), exercise time indicates the time spent for each exercise set described in the Methods section.

Abbreviation: RPE, rate of perceived exertion.

Table 3 Effect of the exercise program on physical performance, upper- and lower-body strength (mean ± standard deviation)

	Pre (T0)	Post (T1)	Δ%	P
Aquatic group (n = 17)
BS (cm)	−7.8 ± 8.9	−5.81 ± 8.34	25.8	0.042
SR (cm)	3.2 ± 7.3	13.08 ± 6.77	309.9	0.000
UGT (sec)	5.57 ± 1.21	4.49 ± 0.76	−19.3	0.000
HG (kg)	22.7 ± 9.8	23.51 ± 8.32	3.8	0.597
KET (Nm)	75.34 ± 18.56	78.49 ± 15.23	5.5	0.179
KEM (Nm)	111.52 ± 41.07	120.40 ± 39.36	14.61	0.138
Land group (n = 17)
BS (cm)	−4.9 ± 6.5	−3.47 ± 8.35	29.0	0.533
SR (cm)	5.3 ± 12.2	13.53 ± 11.51	153.7	0.003
UGT (sec)	6.08 ± 2.06	5.31 ± 2.08	−12.6	0.013
HG (kg)	18.7 ± 8.4	23.55 ± 9.14	26.1	0.045
KET (Nm)	67.06 ± 21.34	68.73 ± 19.33	−1.0	0.702
KEM (Nm)	101.16 ± 47.95	103.87 ± 53.13	−0.7	0.891
Control group (n = 19)
BS (cm)	−4.7 ± 12	−4.45 ± 9.60	5.3	0.326
SR (cm)	8.9 ± 7.8	10.37 ± 7.62	16.5	0.103
UGT (sec)	5.11 ± 0.79	5.28 ± 1.02	3.3	0.304
HG (kg)	20.7 ± 9.8	23.54 ± 10.65	13.9	0.096
KET (Nm)	74.23 ± 20.34	64.41 ± 22.96	−14.4	0.000
KEM (Nm)	113.28 ± 57.34	84.60 ± 40.23	−25.5	0.006

Abbreviations: BS, back scratch test; SR, sit-and-reach test; UGT, 8-foot Up and Go test; HG, hand grip test; KET, isotonic leg extension strength; KEM, isometric leg extension strength; Δ, difference between T₁ and T₀.

Table 4 Effect of the exercise program on body composition (mean ± standard deviation)

	Pre (T0)	Post (T1)	Δ%	P
Aquatic group (n = 17)
Body mass (kg)	69.7 ± 13.4	68.8 ± 13.6	−1.3	0.041
BMI (kg · m^−2)	26.6 ± 2.8	26.2 ± 2.7	−1.4	0.037
Appendicular FM (g)	8241.5 ± 2410.1	8022.2 ± 2453.6	−2.7	0.216
Trunk FM (g)	11003.5 ± 4032.2	10417.2 ± 3692.2	−5.3	0.011
Total FM (g)	20076.3 ± 5699.0	19276.0 ± 5427.1	−4.0	0.039
Appendicular FFM (g)	19444.9 ± 4379.6	19170.3 ± 4354.1	−1.4	0.493
ASMM (kg · m^−2)	7.40 ± 1.09	7.29 ± 1.12	−1.5	0.764
Trunk FFM (g)	23381.8 ± 5110.4	23360.0 ± 5058.2	−0.1	0.912
Total FFM (g)	46005.7 ± 9619.0	45732.8 ± 9581.7	−0.6	0.295
Radius muscle density (mg · m^−3)	74.30 ± 2.70	74.97 ± 2.44	0.9	0.232
Radius muscle area (mm^2)	3394.4 ± 735.0	3510.0 ± 750.2	3.4	0.167
Radius fat area (mm^2)	1082.7 ± 352.5	983.5 ± 361.2	−9.2	0.049
Radius total area (mm^2)	4832.1 ± 804.6	4856.7 ± 839.7	0.5	0.174
Tibia muscle density (mg · m^−3)	70.86 ± 1.83	72.14 ± 1.76	1.8	0.014
Tibia muscle area (mm^2)	6926.7 ± 1405.3	6959.3 ± 1410.9	0.5	0.991
Tibia fat area (mm^2)	1826.4 ± 865.9	1879.0 ± 842.2	2.9	0.885
Tibia total area (mm^2)	9479.6 ± 946.9	9563.7 ± 1060.3	0.9	0.844
Land group (n = 17)
Body mass (kg)	69.1 ± 13.9	68.9 ± 13.4	−0.3	0.657
BMI (kg · m^−2)	25.7 ± 3.5	25.7 ± 3.4	−0.2	0.734
Appendicular FM (g)	7490.8 ± 2898.5	7158.1 ± 3507.1	−4.4	0.827
Trunk FM (g)	9827.3 ± 3620.0	9640.7 ± 3869.1	−1.9	0.418
Total FM (g)	18167.1 ± 5956.5	18112.8 ± 6425.8	−0.3	0.793
Appendicular FFM (g)	20055.3 ± 4996.1	18293.3 ± 6751.7	−8.8	0.444
ASMM (kg · m^−2)	7.39 ± 1.25	7.28 ± 1.17	−1.6	0.498
Trunk FFM (g)	23783.6 ± 5548.0	23966.8 ± 5544.6	0.8	0.014
Total FFM (g)	46621.0 ± 10727.6	47040.6 ± 10827.8	0.9	0.009
Radius muscle density (mg · m^−3)	74.60 ± 2.63	75.85 ± 2.22	1.7	0.040
Radius muscle area (mm^2)	3483.3 ± 984.7	3587.2 ± 975.2	3.0	0.120
Radius fat area (mm^2)	1005.6 ± 531.0	1093.5 ± 612.2	8.7	0.728
Radius total area (mm^2)	4868.6 ± 1194.3	5046.3 ± 1034.5	3.6	0.523
Tibia muscle density (mg · m^−3)	71.90 ± 3.29	72.07 ± 3.79	0.2	0.966
Tibia muscle area (mm^2)	6825.7 ± 1590.5	6986.6 ± 1606.2	2.4	0.402
Tibia fat area (mm^2)	1979.0 ± 1069.3	2163.1 ± 1110.1	9.3	0.346
Tibia total area (mm^2)	9583.9 ± 1708.1	9938.5 ± 1639.7	3.7	0.025
Control group (n = 19)
Body mass (kg)	65.4 ± 10.8	65.2 ± 9.6	−0.3	0.315
BMI (kg · m^−2)	24.4 ± 2.6	24.1 ± 2.4	−1.2	0.103
Appendicular FM (g)	7969.1 ± 2983.1	8301.8 ± 2790.6	4.3	0.074
Trunk FM (g)	9218.0 ± 2688.2	9511.8 ± 2568.0	3.2	0.115
Total FM (g)	18144.3 ± 5101.0	20162.5 ± 4412.8	11.1	0.000
Appendicular FFM (g)	18701.6 ± 5008.9	18547.9 ± 5064.1	−0.8	0.117
ASMM (kg · m^−2)	6.86 ± 1.27	6.79 ± 1.27	−0.9	0.315
Trunk FFM (g)	22469.7 ± 4512.0	22015.6 ± 4363.4	−2.0	0.047
Total FFM (g)	44286.5 ± 9910.8	43376.5 ± 9676.9	−2.1	0.003
Radius muscle density (mg · m^−3)	75.19 ± 2.76	75.14 ± 2.41	−0.1	0.891
Radius muscle area (mm^2)	3281.6 ± 925.5	3239.6 ± 1013.1	−1.3	0.404
Radius fat area (mm^2)	1169.9 ± 463.4	1129.1 ± 441.0	−3.5	0.085
Radius total area (mm^2)	4774.8 ± 788.1	4733.4 ± 842.6	−0.9	0.163
Tibia muscle density (mg · m^−3)	72.47 ± 2.94	72.93 ± 2.23	0.6	0.412
Tibia muscle area (mm^2)	6944.7 ± 1817.7	7093.5 ± 1833.4	2.1	0.105
Tibia fat area (mm^2)	2091.4 ± 936.3	2172.2 ± 831.9	3.9	0.527
Tibia total area (mm^2)	9755.2 ± 1482.8	10014.8 ± 1539.8	2.7	0.014

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; FM, fat mass; FFM, fat free mass; ASMM, appendicular skeletal muscle mass; Δ, difference between T₁ and T₀.

Figure 2 Dynamic balance at baseline (white columns) and after six months (dotted columns).

Notes: *Indicates a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05); **indicates P value < 0.01; ^†indicates a between-group statistically significant difference (P < 0.01) while ^‡indicates between-group significance with P value < 0.05; ^††intra groups indicates statistically significant difference (ANOVA).
Abbreviations: AG, aquatic group; LG, land group; CG, control group.