Exercise Rehabilitation and Chronic Respiratory Diseases: Effects, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Benefits

Figures & data

Table 1 Studies Related to the Rehabilitative Effects of Exercise Interventions in Patients with COPD

Type of Movement	Author & Year	Movement Frequency	Duration	Movement Form	Exercise Intensity	Improvement Indicators
Resistance exercises	Chen Y et al 2018^Citation16	3 times/week	12 weeks	Elastic band and self-weight	Varies with each person	Muscle strength↑ Sports endurance↑
	Silva CMDSE et al 2018^Citation17	3 times/week	8 weeks	Free weight (Dumbbell)	50% 1RM	Motor ability↑ Upper limb muscle strength↑ Quality of life↑
	Calik-Kutukcu E et al 2017^Citation18	3 times/week	8 weeks	Free weight	40–50% 1RM	Peripheral muscle strength↑ Arm motility↑ ADL performance↑ Satisfaction with activity performance↑ Respiratory distress and arm fatigue perception↓
	Zambom-Ferraresi F et al 2015^Citation19	2 times/week	12 weeks	Equipment	50–70% 1RM	Maximum muscle strength ↑ Motor ability↑ Quality of life↑
	Nyberg A et al 2015^Citation20	3 times/week	8 weeks	Elastic band and self-weight	Varies with each person	Upper limb activity endurance↑ Muscle function↑
Aerobic exercises	Gallo-Silva B et al 2019^Citation21	3 times/week	8 weeks	Aerobic interval training in water	Medium-high intensity (Borg rating of 4–6)	Self-regulating heart rate↑ Quality of life↑ Functional capacity↑
	Santos C et al 2015^Citation22	3 times/week	8 weeks	Treadmill and bicycles	60/80% Wmax	HRQOL↑ Symptom control↑ Exercise tolerance↑
	De Sousa Pinto JM et al 2014^Citation23	2 times/week	12 weeks	Walking, stair climbing, cycling, and treadmill walking	Varies with each person	Quality of life↑ Motor ability↑ Breathing difficulties for activities of daily living↓
	Pleguezuelos E et al 2013^Citation24	Daily	1 year	City walk	Low intensity	Motor ability↑

Abbreviations: COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; 1RM, one-repetition maximum; Wmax, workload maximum; ADL, activity of daily living; HRQOL, health-related quality of life. ↑, upward arrow represents a positive improvement in function; ↓, downward pointing arrow represents symptom relief.

Table 2 Studies Related to the Rehabilitative Effects of Exercise Interventions in Patients with Bronchial Asthma

Type of Movement	Author & Year	Movement Frequency	Duration	Movement Form	Exercise Intensity	Improvement Indicators
Resistance exercises	Chung et al 2021^Citation38	5 days/week	12 weeks	Equipment	50–60% PImax	Inspiratory muscle strength↑ Asthma control↑ Functional capacity↑ Physical activity↑
	Sanz-Santiago et al 2020^Citation39	3 days/week	12 weeks	Equipment	From 40% of 5RM lifting ability at the start of the program to 60% of 5RM at the end of the program	Cardiorespiratory fitness↑ Muscle strength↑
	Freitas et al 2018^Citation40	2 times/week	3 months	Equipment	50–70% 1RM	Daily life physical activity↑ Sleep efficiency↑ Depression↓ Asthma symptoms↓
Aerobic exercises	O’Neill & Dogra 2021^Citation41	3 times/week	6 weeks	HIIT	10% Wpeak for 1 min and 90% Wpeak for 1 min, repeated 10 times	Asthma control↑ Exertional dyspnea↑ Exercise enjoyment↑
	Winn et al 2021^Citation42	3 times/week	6 months	HIIT	>90% age-predicted HRmax	Cardiorespiratory fitness↑ BMI↓
	Evaristo et al 2020^Citation43	2 times/week	2 weeks	Treadmill	60% HRmax	Asthma control↑ Use of rescue medication↓
	Sanz-Santiago et al 2020^Citation39	3 days/week	12 weeks	Aerobic cycle	HR of VT1 measured at baseline	Cardiorespiratory fitness↑ Muscle strength↑
	Zhang & Yang 2019^Citation44	3 times /week	6 weeks	Aerobic circuit training		Clinical symptoms↑ QoL↑
	Jaakkola et al 2019^Citation45	≥3 times /week	24 weeks	Different forms	70–80% HRmax	Asthma control↑ Shortness of breath↓
	Freitas et al 2018^Citation40	2 times/week	3 months	Bike Treadmill Elliptical machine	50–75% VO2 Max	Daily life physical activity↑ Sleep efficiency↑ Depression↓ Asthma symptoms↓
	Carew & Cox 2018^Citation46	1 time/week	6 weeks	Swimming Football Basketball		FVC%↑ PEF%↑ Asthma symptoms↓
	Toennesen et al 2018^Citation60	3 times/week	8 weeks	HIIT (Indoor spinning bikes)	<30% maximal intensity <60% maximal intensity >90% maximal intensity	Asthma control↑ QoL↑
	Abdelbasset et al 2018^Citation48	3 times/week	10 weeks	Walking on a treadmill	50–70% HRmax	Pulmonary functions↑ Aerobic capacity↑ PQoL↑
	Franca-Pinto et al 2015^Citation54	2 times/week	12 weeks	Treadmill	Vigorous training (based on the AnT and the RCP)	Motor ability↑ QoL↑

Abbreviations: PImax, maximal inspiratory pressure; Wpeak, peak power output; 5RM, five-repetition maximum; 1RM, one-repetition maximum; VT1, ventilation threshold; HIIT, high-intensity interval training; BMI, body mass index; QoL, quality of life; HRmax, heart rate maximum; PEF, peak expiratory flow; PQoL, pediatric quality of life; AnT, anaerobic threshold; RCP, respiratory compensation point. ↑, upward arrow represents a positive improvement in function; ↓, downward pointing arrow represents symptom relief.

Table 3 Studies Related to the Rehabilitative Effects of Exercise Interventions in Patients with Bronchiectasis

Type of Movement	Author & Year	Movement Frequency	Duration	Movement Form	Exercise Intensity	Improvement Indicators
Resistance exercises	Cedeño de Jesús S et al 2022^Citation74	3–5 days/week	8 weeks	Equipment	Varies with each person	Motor ability↑ Walking distance↑ Breathing difficulties↓
	Araújo AS et al 2022^Citation79	3 times/week	3 months	Equipment and barbells	Starting at 50% 1RM, the load was increased by 10% per week until 80% 1RM was reached	Physical fitness↑ QoL↑
	José A et al 2021^Citation75	3 times/week	8 weeks	Elastic band	70% maximum isometric autonomous contraction	Motor ability↑ QoL↑ Quadriceps muscle strength↑
	Deniz S et al 2021^Citation80	2 times/week	8 weeks	Incremental load resistance	Varies with each person	Motor ability↑ QoL↑
	Patel S et al 2019^Citation81	3 times/week	8 weeks	Equipment and free weights	60% 1RM	Motor ability↑ HRQoL↑ Breathing difficulties↓
	Pehlivan E et al 2019^Citation77	2 times /week	2 months	Free weight		Physical activity level↑ Lung function↑
Aerobic exercises	Cedeño de Jesús S et al 2022^Citation74	3–5 days/week	8 weeks	Walking and bicycles	Varies with each person	Motor ability↑ Walking distance↑ Sports endurance↑ Breathing difficulties↓
	Araújo AS et al 2022^Citation79	3 times/week	3 months	Treadmill	80% VO2 Max	Physical fitness↑ QoL↑
	José A et al 2021^Citation75	3 days/week	8 weeks	Step training	Achieve 60–80% of the maximum step cadence	Motor ability↑ Exercise tolerance↑ QoL↑
	Deniz S et al 2021^Citation80	2 times/week	8 weeks	Treadmill and bicycles	60–90% HRmax	Motor ability↑ QoL↑
	Dos Santos DO et al 2018^Citation82	2 times/week	12 weeks	Treadmill and bicycles	80% VO2 Max	Breathing difficulties↓
	Zanini A et al 2015^Citation78	3 days/week	3 weeks	Treadmill and bicycles	60–70% HRmax	HRQoL↑ Motor ability↑ Breathing difficulties↓
	Van Zeller M et al 2012^Citation76	3 times/week	12 weeks	Bicycles	60% Wmax	FVC↑

Abbreviations: HRQoL, health-related quality of life; FVC, forced vital capacity; Wmax, workload maximum; VO2 Max, peak oxygen consumption; ↑, upward arrow represents a positive improvement in function; ↓, downward pointing arrow represents symptom relief.

Table 4 Studies Related to the Rehabilitative Effects of Exercise Interventions in Patients with ILD

Type of Movement	Author & Year	Movement Frequency	Duration	Movement Form	Exercise Intensity	Improvement Indicators
Resistance exercises	Jarosch et al 2020^Citation99	3–6 times /week	3 weeks	Free weight	15–20RM	Exercise capacity↑ Disease-specific QoL↑
	Sciriha et al 2019^Citation100	2 times/week	12 weeks	Free weights		Dyspnoea↓ Health status↑ Fatigue↓
	Perez-Bogerd et al 2018^Citation101	3 times/week	6 months	Multi-gym device	70% 1RM	Exercise tolerance↑ Health status↑ Muscle force↑
	Naz et al 2018^Citation102	2 times/week	12 weeks	Free weights	Borg scale (4–6)	Functional capacity↑ Dyspnoea↓ QoL↑ Muscle strength↑ Anxiety and fatigue↑
	Dowman et al 2017^Citation103	2 times/week	8 weeks	Dumbbell	10–12 RM	Exercise capacity↑ Symptoms↓ HRQoL↑
	Tonelli et al 2017^Citation104	6 hours/week	4 weeks	Light weights Resistance bands	Varies with each person	Exercise performance↑ HRQoL↑
Aerobic exercises	Essam et al 2022^Citation105	3 times /week	6 weeks	Arm ergometer Treadmill	50–76% HRmax	Functional exercise capacity↑ Dyspnoea↓ Oxygen saturation↑ HRQoL↑
	Brunetti et al 2021^Citation106	5 times/week	3–4 weeks	Continuous cycling	50–70% of the maximal load	Dyspnoea↓ Exercise capacity↑ Fatigue↓
	Jarosch et al 2020^Citation99	3–6 times /week	3 weeks	Interval cycle training	60% −100% Wpeak	Exercise capacity↑ Disease-specific QoL↑
	Sciriha et al 2019^Citation100	2 times/week	12 weeks	Treadmill Stationary bike	70% resting heart rate	Functional capacity↑ Dyspnoea↓ Health status↑ Fatigue↓
	Perez-Bogerd et al 2018^Citation101	3 times/week	6 months	Cycle ergometer	60–85% Wmax	Exercise tolerance↑ Health status↑
	Naz et al 2018^Citation102	2 time/week	12 weeks	Treadmill	70% Wmax	Functional capacity↑ Dyspnoea↓ QoL↑ Oxygenation↑ Anxiety and fatigue↓
	Tonelli et al 2017^Citation104	6 hours/week	4 weeks	Treadmill Stationary bikes	Varies with each person	Exercise performance↑ HRQoL↑
	Dowman et al 2017^Citation103	2 times /week	8 weeks	Cycling Walking	70% Wmax 80% Wmax	Exercise capacity↑ Symptoms↓ HRQoL↑
	Keyser et al 2015^Citation97	3 times/week	10 weeks	Treadmill	70–80% HRmax	Fatigue↓ Physical activity↑

Abbreviations: ILD, Interstitial Lung Disease; RM, repetition maximum; ↑, upward arrow represents a positive improvement in function; ↓, downward pointing arrow represents symptom relief.

Table 5 Studies Related to the Rehabilitative Effects of Exercise Interventions in Patients with Lung Cancer

Type of Movement	Author & Year	Movement Frequency	Duration	Movement Form	Exercise Intensity	Improvement Indicators
Resistance exercises	Machado et al 2023^Citation130	2 times/week	2–6 weeks	Free weight	RPE Borg CR-10 (3–5, moderate to strong)	HRQoL↑ Lower limb functional strength↑ Fatigue↓
	Mikkelsen et al 2022^Citation131	2 times/week	12 weeks	Free weight	Varies with each person	Physical function↑ Lower body muscle strength↑ Psychological well-being↑ Lean body mass↑
	Scott et al 2021^Citation132	3 times/week	16 weeks	Equipment and free weights	50–85% maximal strength	Maximal strength↑ Body composition↑
	Messaggi-Sartor et al 2019^Citation133	3 times/week	8 weeks	Free weight	30–50% PImax and PEmax	Exercise capacity↑ Respiratory muscle strength↑
	Cavalheri et al 2017^Citation134	3 times/week	8 weeks	Equipment and free weights	Varies with each person	Exercise capacity↑
	Vanderbyl et al 2017^Citation122	2 times /week	6 weeks	Equipment and free weights	60–70% HRmax or 2–4 METs	Feelings of weakness↓ Walking capacity↑ Well-being↑ Sleep↑
	Quist et al 2015^Citation135	2 times /week	6 weeks	Equipment	70–90% 1RM	Physical capacity↑ Anxiety↓ Well-being↑
Aerobic exercises	Machado et al 2023^Citation130	3 times/week	2–6 weeks	Walking	RPE Borg CR-10 (3–5)	HRQoL↑ Lower limb functional strength↑ Fatigue↓
	Mikkelsen et al 2022^Citation131	2 times/week	12 weeks	Home-based walking		Physical function↑ Lower body muscle strength↑ Psychological well-being↑ Lean body mass↑
	Lei et al 2022^Citation136	5 times/week	8 weeks	Baduanjin	Moderate intensity	QoL↑ Depression↓ Anxiety↓
	Scott et al 2021^Citation132	3 times/week	16 weeks	Cycle ergometry	55%–>95% VO2 Max	Cardiorespiratory fitness↑
	Messaggi-Sartor et al 2019^Citation133	3 times/week	8 weeks	Ergometric bicycle	60% Wpeak (increasing 5 watt weekly)	Exercise capacity↑ Respiratory muscle strength↑
	Bhatia & Kayser 2019^Citation137	3 times/week	2–3 weeks	HIIT	30%–100%Wpeak	Cardio-respiratory fitness↑ Walking capacity↑
	Cavalheri et al 2017^Citation134	3 times/week	8 weeks	Walking Cycling	60% Wmax	Exercise capacity↑
	Vanderbyl et al 2017^Citation122	2 times/week	6 weeks	Walking	Varies with each person	Feelings of weakness↓ Walking capacity↑ Well-being↑ Sleep↑
	Quist et al 2015^Citation135	2 times/week	6 weeks	Stationary cycle ergometer	60–90% HRmax	Physical capacity↑ Anxiety↓ Well-being↑

Abbreviations: RPE, rate of perceived exertion; Wpeak, peak workload; PEmax, maximal expiratory pressure; MET, metabolic equivalent; ↑, upward arrow represents a positive improvement in function; ↓, downward pointing arrow represents symptom relief.

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