Review on the Diverse Biological Effects of Glabridin

Figures & data

Figure 1 The chemical structure of glabridin.

Table 1 The Biological Effects of Glabridin in Different Models

Category	Models	Biological Effects	Ref.
Anti-inflammation	J774A.1 and HL-60 (exposing to 0.62, 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 10 μg/mL glabridin)	Inhibits the expression of PGE2 (IC50 = 11 μM), TXB2 (IC50 = 11.3 μM), and LTB4 (IC50 = 5.3 μM)	[26]
	Male Wistar rats receive 30 mg/kg glabridin by intraperitoneal injection	Inhibits the activity of p38MPAK/ERK signaling	[28]
	J774A.1 cells were treated with 0.62, 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 10 μg/mL glabridin	Decreases 33% of the NO level and inhibits IL-1β production with an IC50 value of 30.8 μM	[27]
	LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells were exposed to 0.3, 1, 3, and 10 μM glabridin	Inhibits the activity of NF-κB signaling	[29]
	LPS-treated THP-1 cells were exposed to 100 nM glabridin	Suppresses iNOS expression and nitrotyrosine formation	[31]
	LPS-treated HaCat cells were exposed to 5 and 10 μM glabridin	Decreases the activity of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling	[32]
		Inhibits iNOS/NO, p65, IL-6, and IL-1β expression and decreases IL-17A, IL-22, and IL-23 expression	[33]
	LPS-treated DCs were exposed to 5, 10, 15, and 20 μM glabridin	Inhibits NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways	[36]
Anti-oxidation	MPMs, J-774A.1 (20 μM glabridin)	Inhibits 80% of cell-based LDL oxidation, 60% of superoxide release, and P47 translocation	[39]
	Male ApoE^−/− mice receive 40 mg/kg/day glabridin in the drinking water for 2 months	Increases GSH accumulation and reduce lipid peroxides production	[40]
	High glucose-treated THP-1 cells were exposed to 100 nM glabridin	Increases the expression of CAT, PON2, and Mn-SOD	[41]
	Docking	Interacts with rePON1 and prevents from LA-OOH-induced oxidation	[43]
	Male SD rats with MCAO receive 5 and 25 mg/kg glabridin by intraperitoneal injection for 7 days	Ameliorates the focal infarct volume, histopathological changes, and cell apoptosis	[44]
	NHK cells were exposed to 15 μM glabridin	Prevents against UVB-induced DNA damage and cell apoptosis	[45]
	Fluorescence quenching	Inhibits tyrosinase activity with an IC50 value of 0.43 μM	[46]
Anti-tumor	MDA-MB-231, Hs578T and Hepatocarcinoma were exposed to 10 μM glabridin	Induces miR-148a gene demethylation and its expression, inhibits the expression of SMAD2, and attenuates the CSC-like properties	[47]
	MDA-MB-231 and Hs578T cells were exposed to 10 and 20 μM glabridin	Down regulates miR-148/Wnt/β-catenin activity and its downstream factor VEGF expression	[50]
	SK-BR-3 cells were exposed to 10, 50, and 100 μM glabridin	Increases the protein expression of c-PARP, cleaved-caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9; decreases p-ERK1/2, p-AKT, p-EGFR, and cyclin D1 expression	[51]
	Ishikawa cells were exposed to 10 μM glabridin	Promotes estrogen responsive genes expression	[52]
	Ishikawa cells were exposed to 100 pM, 1 nM, 10 nM, 100 nM, 1 μM, and 10 μM glabridin	Increases ERα-SRC-1-co-activator signaling	[53]
	Ishikawa cells were exposed to 1 μM glabridin	Modulates the expression ESR1 and Bcl-2	[54]
	SCC-9 cells were exposed to 20, 40, and 80 μM glabridin	Inhibits cell proliferation, causes cell cycle arrest, and increases the activity of p38 MAPK and JNK1/2 signaling	[55]
	MN-45 cells were exposed to a combination of 0.1 mM 5-FU and 25 μM glabridin	Inhibits cell survival, proliferation, and invasion	[56]
	A549 (1, 2.5, 5, and 7.5μM glabridin), MDA-MB-231 (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 μM glabridin)	Inhibits cell migration, invasion, and angiogenesis. Increases αvβ3 integrin degradation, decreases FAK and Src interaction, and reduces AKT and RhoA activation	[57,58]
	HepG2 cells were exposed to 15, 30, and 45 μM glabridin	Down regulates the expression of cyclinD3, CDK2, and CDK4 and inhibits Braf/MEK signaling	[59]
	Huh7 cells were exposed to 25, 50, and 100 μM glabridin	Activates the expression of p38 MAPK and JNK1/2 signaling	[60]
	MG63 and HOS cells were exposed to 5, 10, and 25 μM glabridin	Decreases the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9, and induce cell cycle arrest	[63]
Anti-microorganism	Docking	Inhibits Mpro with the binding affinity of −8.1 kcal/mol	[19]
		Binds to 3CLpro with a binding energy of −8.25 kcal/mol by forming hydrogen bonds with Glu166, Arg188, and Gly143	[65]
	Vero E6 were exposed to 3.1, 6.2, 12.5, 25, and 50 μM glabridin	Protects against SARS CoV-2 with an IC50 value of 2.5 μM	[138]
	Docking	Inhibits NS3 protease with binding affinity of −7.4 kcal/mol	[67]
	S. aureus were treated with 1/4 MIC, 1/2MIC, and MIC of glabridin (MIC=12.5 μg/mL)	Increases the productions of ROS, NO, and MDA and decreases the expression of SOD	[69]
	MRSA 4423 were treated with 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2MIC of glabridin	Down regulates the expression of cell surface proteins	[70]
	MRSA 4427 were treated with 1MIC of glabridin	Increases ROS production and induces oxidative stress	[139]
	E. faecalis	At the dose of 25 μg/mL, it is active for 11.2% killing	[71]
		Combination of glabridin (25 μg/mL) with nisin (12.5 μg/mL) produces 61.4% killing	[72]
	H37Ra, H37Rv	Inhibits with a MIC value of 29.16 μg/mL	[73]
	C. albicans	Inhibits ATCC 28366 and LAM-1 with MIC values of 6.25 μg/mL and 12.5 μg/mL, respectively.	[76]
		Promotes MCA1 and NUC1 expression, increases apoptosis	[77]
	C. glabrata	Decreases the MIC values against fluconazole-resistant (MIC50 = 8 μg/mL), promotes apoptosis, and induces the expression of MCA1 and NUC1	[80]
	F. graminearum	Inhibits the mycelial growth and conidial germination with EC50 values of 110.70 mg/L and 40.47 mg/L, respectively.	[84]
	E. tenella	Inhibits the replication of by 75%, 50%, and 30% at the doses of 21.43 μg/mL, 5.28μg/mL, and 0.96μg/mL, respectively.	[86]
Bone protection	RAW264.7 cells were exposed to 1, 2, and 5 μM glabridin	Increases the activity of TRAF6, GAB2, ERK2, JNK1, and MKK7, enhances the expression of c-FOS and NFATc1, and elevates the productions of MMP-9, cathepsin K, CAII, TCIRG1, OSTM1, and CLCN7.	[87]
	C2C12 cells were exposed to 10 μM glabridin	Abolishes dexamethasone-stimulated protein degradation	[88]
	L6 myotubes were exposed to 3, 10, and 30 μM glabridin	Stimulates AMPK-dependent GLUT4 translocation	[89]
	MC3T3-E1 cells were exposed to 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μM glabridin	Inhibits MG-induced cytotoxicity and cell death	[90]
	MC3T3-E1 cells were exposed to 5 μM glabridin	Ameliorates dRib-induced oxidative damage and increases ALP, OPN, OPG, OC, and BMPs expression by up regulating the expression of PI3K/AKT2 signaling pathway	[91]
	MSCs were exposed to 1, 10, and 50 μM glabridin	Increases the expression of Oct4, Dlx5, Runx5, Osteocalcin, and Osteopontin	[96]
Cardiovascular protection	Male New Zealand Rabbits receive 2 mg/kg glabridin by oral catheter for 6 weeks	Down regulation of MLCK/phosphorylated MLC system through MAPK signaling	[21]
	ECV-304 cells were exposed to 30 and 3000 nM glabridin	Increases DNA synthesis, exhibits a bi-phasic effect on the proliferation of VSMC	[100]
	Colonic macrophages from DOX-treated male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 15 and 30 μM glabridin	Prevents against DOX-induced dysbiosis by modulating LPS/NF-κB and butyrate-STAT6 signaling	[101]
Hepato-protection	Male Swiss Mice receive 10–40 mg/kg glabridin intraperitoneally	Increases NRF2 expression, decreases NF-κB signaling	[22]
	Male Wistar rats receive diets supplemented with glabridin (40 mg/kg) for 8 weeks	Decreases STZ-induced collagen fiber deposition, ameliorates microvascular abnormality and liver fibrosis	[103]
	HepG2 were exposed to 20 and 100 μM glabridin	Interacts with the LBD of PPARγ (EC50 = 6115 nM)	[104]
	Docking	Acts as an inhibitor and binds to CYP2E1 with -CDOCKER interaction energy of −84.44 kcal/mol	[106]
Neuro-protection	LPS-treated BV-2 cells were exposed to 0.3, 1, 3, and 10 μM glabridin	Decreases the productions of IL-1β, TNFα, and NO by down regulating the activity of NF-κB signaling and AP-1	[23]
	Male Kunming mice receive 1, 2, and 4 mg/kg orally	Improves memory, reduces the brain cholinesterase activity	[110]
	Electrophysiology	Potentiates GABAA α1β(1–3)γ2 receptor activity, decreases the EC50 values of the receptor for GABA by about 12 folds	[113]
Anti-obesity	3T3-L1 cells were treated with 25 and 50 μM glabridin	Inhibits adipogenesis by decreasing the expression of C/EBPα and PPARγ	[24]
	3T3-L1 cells were treated with 5, 10, and 20 μM glabridin	Inhibits the generation of ROS, PGE2, PLA2, COX-1, and intracellular Ca^2+ concentrations, increases the expression of insulin receptor substrate 1 and Glut4	[122]
Anti-diabetes	Male SD rats receive 50 mg/kg glabridin by intraperitoneal injection for 28 days	Increases the productions of Scr, BUN, UREA, KIM-1, NGAL, and TIMP-1	[127]
	High glucose-treated NRK-52E cells were exposed to glabridin	Suppresses ferroptosis by suppressing oxidative stress and decreasing VEGF, p-AKT, and p-ERK1/2 expression	[127]

Figure 2 Glabridin inhibits the activity of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Stimulated by LPS, TLRs may transduce the signals into the intracellular pathways by recruitment of many factors, such as MyD88. Activated TRAF6 can trigger the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and JNK. In addition, TRAF6 also activates IKKs and then activates NF-κB by degrading IκBs. Activated NF-κB enter the nucleus to transcriptionally regulate the expression of target genes, including pro-inflammatory cytokines. P38 MAPK and JNK are also involved in mediating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Glabridin exhibits the inhibitory activity on LPS/TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. Glabridin also attenuates the expression of MAPK signaling pathway.

Figure 3 Glabridin ameliorates the activity of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Binding of Wnt protein to Frizzled may activate Wnt/β-catenin signaling by recruiting Axin, CK1, Dv1, and GSK-3β. However, SFRPs can negatively regulate Wnt/β-catenin signaling by abolishing Wnts, forming inactive complexes with Frizzled receptors. Activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling induces inactivation of GSK-3β, stability of β-catenin, and nuclear translocation of β-catenin, which binds to TCF4 and LEF-1 and promotes the transcriptional expression of target genes, such as MMPs, c-Myc, and Cyclin D1. Glabridin exhibits inhibitory activity against β-catenin-mediated target genes expression.

Figure 4 Glabridin maintains the balance of bone metabolism. RANKL stimulates inflammatory responses, promotes osteoclastogenesis and osteoclasts proliferation, and induces bone resorption. Activation of AMPK increases GLUT4-mediated glucose uptake, enhances osteoblasts metabolism and proliferation, and promotes bone formation. Glabridin inhibits RANKL-mediated bone resorption and induces AMPK-regulated bone formation.

Figure 5 The various pharmacological effects of glabridin are discussed. These effects include anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, anti-tumor, anti-microorganism, bone protection, cardiovascular protection, hepatoprotection, and neuroprotection. Particularly, NF-κB signaling-mediated inflammatory responses and oxidative stress are involved in many diseases, and glabridin may suppress inflammation and oxidative stress and exhibit benefiting effects in different human systems.

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