Prevalence and determinants of metabolic syndrome: a cross-sectional survey of general medical outpatient clinics using National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel III criteria in Botswana

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic and clinical characteristics of the study participants stratified by sex (N=291)

General characteristics	Total	Females	Males
Participants, n (%)	291 (100)	216 (74.2)	75 (25.8)
Mean age, years (±SD)	50.06 (11)	50.52 (12)	49.90 (10)
Mean heart rate, beats per min (±SD)	76.31 (13.8)	77.67 (13.33)	72.38 (14.68)
Mean pulse pressure (±SD)	50.13 (15.85)	49.75 (15.61)	51 (16.56)
Daily physical activity, n (%)	111 (38.1)	85 (76.6)	26 (23.4)
Daily consumption of vegetables, fruit, or berries, n (%)	38 (13.1)	29 (76.3))	9 (23.7)
Regularly used antihypertensive, n (%)	135 (46.4)	105 (77.8)	30 (22.2)
Family history of diabetes mellitus, n (%)
First-degree relatives	51 (17.5)	38 (74.5)	13 (25.5)
Second-degree relatives	42 (14.4)	33 (78.6)	9 (21.4)
HIV positive	114 (39.2)	91 (79.8)	23 (20.2)
First-line ART	87 (29.9)	66 (75.9)	21 (24.1)
Second-line ART	9 (3.1)	9 (100)	0
Overweight (BMI: 25–30 Kg/m^2)	93 (32)	76 (81.7)	17 (18.3)a
Obesity (BMI: >30 kg/m^2)	98 (33.7)	84 (85.7)	14 (14.3)a
Waist–hip ratio (females >0.85 and males >0.90)	135 (48.8)	112 (81.2)	26 (18.8)a
Components of metabolic syndrome, n (%)
Central obesity	162 (55.7)	146 (90.1)	16 (9.9)a
Elevated blood pressure (systolic BP: ≥130 mmHg; diastolic Bp: ≥85 mmHg)	142 (48.8)	107 (75.4)	35 (24.6)
Fasting glucose ≥6.1 mmHg	6 (2.1)	5 (83.3)	1 (16.7)
Triglycerides ≥1.7 mmHg	58 (19.9)	36 (62.1)	22 (37.9)
HDL-cholesterol, mmol/L (females <1.3 and males <1.0)	65 (22.3)	45 (69.2)	20 (30.8)

Note:

a P-value statistically significant.

Abbreviations: ART, antiretroviral therapy; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; SD, standard deviation.

Table 2 Frequency distribution of various combinations of components of metabolic syndrome among the participants (N=291)

Combinations of metabolic syndrome components	n (%)	Cumulative (%)
0 or <3 components	212 (72.9)	72.9
Low HDL + TRI + high BP	4 (1.4)	74.2
Low HDL + TRI + central obesity	9 (3.1)	77.3
Low HDL + TRI + central obesity + high BP	17 (5.8)	83.2
Low HDL + TRI + central obesity + high BP + FG	1 (0.3)	83.5
Low HDL + central obesity + high BP	38 (13.1)	96.6
Low HDL + central obesity + FG	1 (0.3)	96.9
TRI + central obesity + high BP + FG	1 (0.3)	99.3
Central obesity + FG + High BP	1 (0.3)	99.7
Total	291 (100)	100

Note: Central obesity, mean waist circumference >88 cm in females and >102 cm in males.

Abbreviations: BP, blood pressure; FG, fasting glucose; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; TRI, hypertriglyceridemia.

Table 3 Univariate and multivariate analyses of demographic and clinical risk factors for metabolic syndrome

Characteristics	Proportions (%)	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	P-values	Adjusted OR (95% CI)	P-values
Female	74.2	1
Male	25.8	1.67 (0.89–3.18)	0.109	2.38 (0.94–6.06)	0.68
Age groups, years
<45	35.4	1		1
45–54	33	2.26 (1.15–4.43)	0.018	1.26 (0.56–2.84)	0.58
55–64	19.2	3.04 (1.41–6.56)	0.005	2.26 (0.89–5.72)	0.09
>64	12.4	2.66 (1.14–6.21)	0.024	1.45 (0.52–4.05)	0.48
Body mass index, kg/m^2
<25	36.4	1		1
25–30	28.2	4.88 (1.20–11.95)	0.01	1.77 (0.58–5.43)	0.32
>30	35.4	12.24 (5.16–29.06)	<0.001	2.62 (0.84–8.23)	0.1
Waist circumference (females), cm
<94 (<80)	27.5	1		1
94–102 (80–88)	19.2	0.88 (0.23–11.95)	0.8	0.73 (0.17–3.13)	0.67
>102 (>88)	53.3	11.05 (4.53–26.99)	<0.001	6.66 (1.87–23.76)	0.004b
Abnormal waist to hip ratioa	48.8	3.33 (1.92–5.82)	<0.001	1.5 (0.75–2.97)	0.25
Family history of diabetes mellitus
First-degree family	17.5	1.96 (1.03–3.75	0.042	1.55 (0.70–3.43)	0.28
Second-degree family	14.4	0.95 (0.44–2.07)	0.9	0.67 (0.27–1.67)	0.39
Daily physical activity	38.1	0.7 (0.42–1.18)	0.19	–
Daily consumption of vegetables, fruits, or berries	13.1	0.59 (0.29–1.20)	0.15	–
Regular antihypertensive use	46.4	3.23 (1.88––5.57)	<0.001	2.36 (1.23–4.51)	0.01a

Notes:

a Waist to hip ratio defined abnormal if >0.94 for males and >0.8 for females.

b P-value statistically significant.

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio.