Daily intake of Kaempferia parviflora extract decreases abdominal fat in overweight and preobese subjects: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study

Figures & data

Figure 1 Flowchart illustrating the phases of the study.

Abbreviations: Cho, cholesterol; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; FBG, fasting blood glucose; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; SBP, systolic blood pressure; TGs, triglycerides.

Table 1 Composition and nutritional content of test foods

Food characteristics	Serving size: 1 capsule (308 mg)
	Placebo	KPE
Composition
KPE (mg)	0.0	150.0
Dextrin (mg)	242.5	92.5
Calcium stearate (mg)	2.5	2.5
Gelatin cap (mg)	63.0	63.0
Nutritional content per capsule
Energy (kcal)	1.16	1.18
Protein (g)	0.06	0.07
Carbohydrate (g)	0.23	0.21
Fat (g)	0.00	0.01

Abbreviation: KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract.

Table 2 Characteristics of the subjects at baseline

Characteristics	Placebo group (n=38)	KPE group (n=38)
Age (years)	49.5±9.3	50.2±8.0
Height (cm)	159.45±6.28	159.0±8.28
Body weight (kg)	69.01±5.44	68.81±7.21
BMI (kg/m^2)	27.14±1.47	27.19±1.42
Waist circumference (cm)	94.27±5.67	94.38±5.51
SBP (mmHg)	125.0±14.9	127.0±13.1
DBP (mmHg)	76.1±10.8	75.9±9.1
HR (bpm)	68.0±10.3	66.7±7.4
Abdominal fat area
Visceral (cm^2)	90.30±19.45	90.23±19.22
Subcutaneous (cm^2)	258.13±72.16	257.30±69.43
Total (cm^2)	348.43±71.63	347.54±70.95
Cholesterol
Total-Cho (mg/dL)	221.4±28.4	219.7±26.4
HDL-Cho (mg/dL)	71.4±14.2	68.8±15.5
LDL-Cho (mg/dL)	139.0±29.3	137.7±25.4

Notes: Values are presented as mean±SD. There were no significant differences between the groups.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; bpm, beats per minute; Cho, cholesterol; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HR, heart rate; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; SBP, systolic blood pressure.

Table 3 Changes in energy intake and physical activity after daily intake of test foods

Measurements	Group	0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
Energy intake (kcal)	Placebo	1760.3±311.8	1787.5±379.8	1765.2±343.8	1690.6±359.7
	KPE	1745.2±331.4	1737.5±341.6	1711.4±370.4	1672.5±338.6
Steps (number)	Placebo	7300.9±2953.1	8194.6±3254.3	8021.2±3761.7	8145.8±4195.2
	KPE	6620.2±3929.0	7558.2±4048.6	7568.5±3915.5	8083.1±4020.7

Notes: Data are presented as mean±SD. There were no significant differences between the groups. Energy intake was calculated based on the meal survey. The start of intake is represented as 0 weeks.

Abbreviation: KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract.

Table 4 Changes in physical parameters after daily intake of test food

Measurements	Group		0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
Body weight (kg)	Placebo	Values	69.12±5.54	69.14±5.47	68.89±5.42	68.86±5.57
		Δ		0.02±0.60	−0.22±0.91	−0.26±0.96
	KPE	Values	68.63±7.14	68.63±7.24	68.33±7.16	68.14±7.18
		Δ		0.00±0.75	−0.54±0.97	−0.48±1.13
BMI (kg/m^2)	Placebo	Values	27.16±1.52	27.17±1.57	27.07±1.56	27.06±1.58
		Δ		0.01±0.24	−0.09±0.37	−0.10±0.37
	KPE	Values	27.09±1.35	27.09±1.35	26.92±1.29	26.90±1.38
		Δ		0.01±0.29	−0.22±0.38	−0.19±0.45
Total-Cho (mg/dL)	Placebo	Values	211.9±29.9	209.4±27.2	215.6±28.4	215.1±28.4
		Δ		−2.5±15.4	3.6±18.5	3.1±20.3
	KPE	Values	219.2±25.8	214.3±24.7	217.1±26.8	218.9±28.0
		Δ		−4.9±14.8	−1.9±18.5	−0.3±16.0
HDL-Cho (mg/dL)	Placebo	Values	67.7±14.3	65.6±14.0	65.7±14.2	63.1±13.4
		Δ		−2.1±6.1	−2.0±6.0	−4.6±6.2
	KPE	Values	67.6±16.2	65.3±15.2	64.3±15.8	63.1±13.7
		Δ		−2.2±5.5	−3.0±7.7	−4.5±6.5
LDL-Cho (mg/dL)	Placebo	Values	130.5±26.4	127.1±27.6	133.9±30.6	132.2±25.5
		Δ		−3.4±15.4	3.4±18.0	1.7±16.9
	KPE	Values	135.9±24.9	132.0±22.2	134.5±25.3	133.8±25.2
		Δ		−3.9±11.9	−1.5±16.4	−2.1±13.2
TGs (mg/dL)	Placebo	Values	83.2±35.5	86.9±31.7	90.0±40.7	88.4±32.3
		Δ		3.7±27.4	6.8±35.8	5.2±21.9
	KPE	Values	102.6±67.0	91.6±36.9	98.5±57.7	92.3±54.9
		Δ		−10.9±45.7	−5.6±29.5	−10.3±37.8^a
FBG (mg/dL)	Placebo	Values	85.7±7.3	86.5±7.3	86.5±7.7	88.6±9.2
		Δ		0.8±4.9	0.8±6.2	2.9±6.6
	KPE	Values	89.2±7.3^a	87.7±6.8	88.9±7.1	88.9±7.9
		Δ		−1.5±4.9^a	−0.4±6.0	−0.3±5.3^a
HbA1c (%)	Placebo	Values	5.39±0.33	Not measured	Not measured	5.44±0.32
		Δ				0.06±0.15
	KPE	Values	5.44±0.26	Not measured	Not measured	5.48±0.25
		Δ				0.04±0.19

Notes: Values are presented as mean±SD. Changes from the start of intake (0 weeks) are represented as delta (Δ). There were significant differences for the placebo group according to the Student’s t-test (^aP<0.05).

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; Cho, cholesterol; FBG, fasting blood glucose; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; TGs, triglycerides.

Table 5 Changes in physical parameters in healthy subjects (excluding subjects with dyslipidemia, hypertension, and hyperglycemia)

Measurements	Group		0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
Body weight (kg)	Placebo	Values	69.78±5.65	69.76±5.62	69.48±28.4	69.55±5.76
		Δ		−0.01±0.11	−0.29±0.16	−0.22±0.19
	KPE	Values	66.35±6.45^a	66.42±6.45	66.18±6.55	65.92±6.44^a
		Δ		0.07±0.15	−0.46±0.23	−0.44±0.25
BMI (kg/m^2)	Placebo	Values	27.43±1.37	27.43±1.43	27.31±1.40	27.35±1.45
		Δ		0.00±0.05	−0.12±0.06	−0.09±0.07
	KPE	Values	27.09±1.45	27.13±1.45	26.99±1.34	26.91±1.47
		Δ		0.04±0.06	−0.20±0.09	−0.18±0.10
VFA (cm^2)	Placebo	Values	88.33±20.78	Not measured	88.55±21.95	89.08±19.18
		Δ			0.22±1.85	0.75±1.77
	KPE	Values	84.72±18.26	Not measured	83.32±18.06	80.42±18.30
		Δ			−2.17±1.70	−4.30±1.40^a
SFA (cm^2)	Placebo	Values	276.21±68.29	Not measured	277.29±73.74	279.57±73.72
		Δ			1.08±4.20	3.36±4.40
	KPE	Values	263.96±67.76	Not measured	267.96±63.89	254.43±59.51
		Δ			2.02±4.74	−9.53±4.56^a
TFA (m^2)	Placebo	Values	364.54±72.51	Not measured	365.84±81.04	368.65±78.20
		Δ			1.30±5.00	4.11±5.39
	KPE	Values	348.68±71.67	Not measured	351.28±64.90	334.85±62.79
		Δ			−0.15±5.78	−13.83±5.13^a
TGs (mg/dL)	Placebo	Values	75.46±23.67	81.36±24.56	87.54±41.53	85.11±29.16
		Δ		5.89±3.77	12.07±5.72	9.64±3.59
	KPE	Values	70.83±21.30	79.38±27.13	74.26±25.54	69.21±24.59^a
		Δ		8.54±4.66	2.43±3.57	−1.63±4.71

Notes: Values are presented as mean±SD. There were significant differences from the placebo group according to the Student’s t-test (^ap<0.05).

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; SFA, subcutaneous fat area; TFA, total fat area; TGs, triglycerides; VFA, visceral fat area.

Table 6 Changes in blood pressure and heart rate after daily intake of test food

Measurements	Group	0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
SBP (mmHg)	Placebo	123.9±15.1	120.4±16.0	122.5±15.9	117.5±14.0
	KPE	125.7±10.7	120.8±12.7	124.0±14.1	118.3±11.7
DBP (mmHg)	Placebo	74.9±11.6	71.6±12.8	73.3±11.7	68.8±11.4
	KPE	74.6±9.0	70.8±9.2	72.3±9.2	67.7±10.8
HR (bpm)	Placebo	67.2±9.1	68.0±8.5	66.3±8.2	71.3±8.9
	KPE	66.1±7.6	67.1±7.3	66.4±7.7	70.0±8.1

Notes: Values are presented as the mean±SD. There were no significant differences between the groups.

Abbreviations: bpm, beats per minute; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HR, heart rate; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; SBP, systolic blood pressure.

Table 7 Changes in biochemical parameters after daily intake of test food

Measurements	Standard range	Group	0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
TP (g/dL)	6.7–8.3	Placebo	7.40±0.28	7.32±0.28	7.41±0.34	7.25±0.32
		KPE	7.53±0.37	7.43±0.40	7.45±0.35	7.35±0.37
Albumin (g/dL)	3.8–5.2	Placebo	4.38±0.27	4.25±0.21	4.22±0.24	4.17±0.24
		KPE	4.42±0.27	4.28±0.22	4.27±0.25	4.17±0.25
T-bil (mg/dL)	0.3–1.2	Placebo	0.76±0.26	0.78±0.26	0.74±0.27	0.78±0.28
		KPE	0.78±0.26	0.78±0.28	0.80±0.26	0.80±0.26
AST (U/L)	10–40	Placebo	21.6±4.4	21.0±4.6	21.9±5.5	21.0±4.1
		KPE	20.7±4.5	20.5±4.8	21.0±4.9	20.4±4.7
ALT (U/L)	5–40	Placebo	22.3±9.3	21.4±9.2	22.8±10.5	21.1±9.6
		KPE	20.4±7.3	21.9±12.7	19.8±7.2	18.9±8.3
γ-GTP (U/L)	M: 70	Placebo	29.2±22.3	30.2±30.3	29.7±23.5	28.6±21.7
	F: 30	KPE	26.1±16.3	27.0±18.8	24.4±15.7	24.6±17.3
LDH (U/L)	115–245	Placebo	179.8±29.4	180.9±30.0	183.5±35.1	186.5±28.6
		KPE	182.9±28.6	181.7±30.3	180.4±30.5	196.0±30.9
ALP (U/L)	115–359	Placebo	198.2±42.4	196.1±46.9	193.4±42.4	191.8±46.5
		KPE	211.7±68.4	208.4±65.5	203.7±59.8	201.1±63.2
Uric acid (mg/dL)	M: 3.7–7.0	Placebo	4.96±1.31	5.07±1.39	5.29±1.31	5.16±1.43
	F: 2.5–7.0	KPE	4.91±1.22	5.06±1.46	4.99±1.13	4.99±1.12
BUN (mg/dL)	8.0–22.0	Placebo	13.16±3.35	12.92±3.20	13.69±3.29	13.72±3.24
		KPE	11.99±3.42	13.10±3.42	12.52±3.05	12.41±3.74
Creatinine (mg/dL)	M: 0.61–1.04	Placebo	0.642±0.098	0.625±0.113	0.677±0.085	0.664±0.090
	F: 0.47–0.79	KPE	0.651±0.144	0.637±0.151	0.677±0.145	0.674±0.140

Notes: Values are presented as mean±SD. There were no significant differences between the groups.

Abbreviations: ALP, alkaline phosphatase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; γ-GTP, γ-glutamyltranspeptidase; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; T-bil, total bilirubin; TP, total protein.

Table 8 Changes in blood electrolyte levels after daily intake of test food

Measurements	Standard range	Group	0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
Na (mEq/L)	136–147	Placebo	140.4±1.5	140.6±1.5	140.3±1.6	140.4±1.3
		KPE	140.5±1.9	140.4±2.0	139.9±1.7	140.5±1.7
K (mEq/L)	3.6–5.0	Placebo	4.04±0.28	4.04±0.24	4.13±0.29	3.99±0.25
		KPE	3.98±0.28	3.90±0.25^a	3.97±0.21^b	3.85±0.24^a
Cl (mEq/L)	98–109	Placebo	103.8±1.5	103.9±1.5	104.0±1.5	105.0±1.7
		KPE	102.9±2.0^a	103.3±2.1	103.5±1.9	104.5±1.8
Ca (mg/L)	8.5–10.2	Placebo	9.19±0.27	9.19±0.30	9.36±0.23	9.26±0.24
		KPE	9.30±0.24	9.28±0.25	9.40±0.26	9.23±0.21
Mg (mg/L)	1.8–2.6	Placebo	2.22±0.14	2.16±0.12	2.22±0.13	2.19±0.14
		KPE	2.21±0.14	2.18±0.14	2.23±0.13	2.20±0.14
Fe (μg/L)	M: 54–200	Placebo	116.8±43.5	114.1±44.8	107.6±38.1	109.0±40.8
	F: 48–154	KPE	107.5±25.8	109.3±38.3	114.7±43.3	100.2±34.1

Notes: Values are presented as mean±SD. There were significant differences between the groups (^ap<0.05; ^bp<0.01).

Abbreviations: Ca, calcium; Cl, chloride; Fe, iron; K, potassium; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; Mg, magnesium; Na, sodium.

Table 9 Changes in hematologic parameters after daily intake of test food

Measurements	Standard range	Group	0 weeks	4 weeks	8 weeks	12 weeks
WBC (/μL)	M: 3900–9800	Placebo	5666±1425	5627±1291	5459±1242	5670±1262
	F: 3500–9100	KPE	5595±1359	5634±1414	5670±1474	5800±1562
RBC (×10^4/μL)	M: 427–570	Placebo	463.2±25.4	465.5±27.0	468.1±28.2	460.0±27.7
	F: 376–500	KPE	465.4±46.3	458.1±46.8	471.7±43.7	456.9±45.0
Hb (g/dL)	M: 13.5–17.6	Placebo	13.61±1.15	13.46±1.20	13.86±1.35	13.61±1.33
	F: 11.3–15.2	KPE	13.56±1.15	13.38±1.07	13.83±1.15	13.36±1.17
Ht (%)	M: 39.8–51.8	Placebo	42.28±2.86	42.12±3.21	43.09±3.54	43.01±3.48
	F: 33.4–44.9	KPE	42.14±3.31	41.89±3.08	42.89±3.16	42.35±3.27
Plts (×10^4/μL)	M: 13.1–36.2	Placebo	27.29±5.35	27.57±4.76	27.10±4.56	26.60±5.56
	F: 13.0–36.9	KPE	27.88±5.01	27.09±5.59	27.33±5.53	26.78±5.78
MCV (fL)	M: 82.7–101.6	Placebo	91.32±4.73	92.29±4.93	92.05±5.10	93.46±4.76
	F: 79.0–100.0	KPE	90.86±4.70	91.80±4.79	91.19±4.65	92.99±4.79
MCH (pg)	M: 28.0–34.6	Placebo	29.37±1.91	29.49±1.90	29.59±1.97	29.56±1.98
	F: 26.3–34.3	KPE	29.22±1.54	29.31±1.56	29.38±1.59	29.33±1.62
MCHC (%)	M: 31.6–36.6	Placebo	32.15±0.91	31.94±0.89	32.15±0.90	31.62±1.20
	F: 30.7–36.6	KPE	32.17±0.62	31.93±0.69	32.22±0.67	31.53±0.102

Notes: Values are presented as mean±SD. There were no significant differences between the groups.

Abbreviations: F, female; Hb, hemoglobin; Ht, hematocrit; KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; M, male; MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin; MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; MCV, mean corpuscular volume; Plts, platelets; RBC, red blood cell; WBC, white blood cell.

Table 10 Changes in urinalysis parameters after daily intake of test food

Measurements	Standard range	Group	0 weeks					12 weeks
			–	±	+			–	±	+
Urine protein	(–)	Placebo	34	4	0			29	8	0
		KPE	34	4	0			28	9	1
Urine glucose	(–)	Placebo	38	0	0			37	0	0
		KPE	38	0	0			38	0	0
Urobilinogen	(±)	Placebo	0	38	0			0	37	0
		KPE	0	38	0			0	38	0
Bilirubin	(–)	Placebo	38	0	0			37	0	0
		KPE	38	0	0			38	0	0
			–	±	+	2+	3+	–	±	+	2+	3+
Ketone bodies	(–)	Placebo	36	0	2	0	0	37	0	0	0	0
		KPE	38	0	0	0	0	37	0	0	1	0
Occult blood	(–)	Placebo	31	0	3	1	3	33	0	2	1	1
		KPE	31	0	5	0	2	34	0	4	0	0
Specific gravity	1.005–1.030	Placebo	1.0153±0.0068					1.0183±	0.0072
		KPE	1.0160±0.0062					1.0170±	0.0081
pH	5.0–7.5	Placebo	6.25±0.75					6.34±0.84
		KPE	6.39±0.70					6.37±0.66

Notes: Urine protein, urine glucose, urobilinogen, bilirubin, ketone bodies, and occult blood: values indicate the number of subjects. Status is indicated as follows: −, negative; ±, false-positive; +, positive (mild); 2+, positive (moderate); 3+, positive (serious). Specific gravity and pH: values are presented as mean±SD. There were no significant differences between the groups.

Abbreviation: KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract.

Figure 2 Changes in abdominal fat area after daily intake of test food.

Notes: Values are presented as mean±standard error. Changes in VFA (A), SFA (B), and TFA (C) are shown as closed circles (KPE group) and open diamonds (Placebo group). Significant differences are observed between the groups (^ap<0.05; ^bp<0.01).
Abbreviations: KPE, Kaempferia parviflora extract; SFA, subcutaneous fat area; TFA, total fat area; VFA, visceral fat area.