A Wearable Gait Analysis System Used in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients: A Case–Control Study

Figures & data

Figure 1 Picture of the system (gait acquisition device + tablet computer).

Figure 2 Pictures of wearing equipment for testing.

Table 1 Various Observation Indicators with Their Units and Definitions

S/No	Indicators	Units	Definition
1	Stance phase	s	It is the time period during walking in which one-foot heel touch the ground to the time when the same foot toe is off the ground
2	Swing phase	s	It is the time period during walking in which one-foot toe is off the ground to the time when the same foot heel contacts the ground
3	Double-foot stance phase	s	It is the time period when both feet are in contact with the ground during one gait cycle.
4	Single-foot stance phase	s	It is the time period when one foot is in contact with the ground during one gait cycle.
5	Walking cadence	Steps/min	It is step number per minute.
6	Stride length	m	It is defined as the distance between any two successive points of heel contact of the same foot.
7	Walking speed	m/s	It is the speed of walking.
8	Off-ground angle	°	It is the angle between the foot and the ground when the tip of the foot is off the ground.
9	Landing angle	°	It is the angle between the foot and the ground when the heel touches the ground.
10	Maximum swing angle	°	It is the maximum angle in one gait cycle between the foot and the ground when the tip of the foot towards up.
11	Minimum swing angle	°	It is the maximum angle in one gait cycle between the foot and the ground when the tip of the foot towards down. It is negative due to direction.
12	Foot progression angle	°	It is the angle between the long axis of the foot and the direction of the step.

Table 2 Comparison of Clinical Data in Three Groups

Item	DPP Group (n=16)	DNP Group (n=57)	CG Group (n=73)	P-value
Female/Male	9/7	32/25	38/35	0.883
Age (years)	58.88±7.90	55.07±11.43	52.23±12.43	0.088
Height (m)	1.66±0.07	1.68±0.08	1.66±0.08	0.641
BMI (kg/m2)	26.81±3.79	25.46±3.82	25.18±3.34	0.191
time since diabetes diagnosis (y)	15.96±7.57	9.97±6.93		0.004*
HbA1C (%)	9.21±2.14	9.64±2.10		0.474
GA(%)	25.96±8.12	25.99±7.72		0.987

Notes: “*” of P is less than 0.05.

Abbreviations: DPP, diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy; DNP, diabetic patients without peripheral neuropathy; CG, control group; BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; GA, glycated albumin.

Figure 3 Mean of time since diabetes diagnosis (y) in different groups.

Abbreviations: DPP, diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy; DNP, diabetic patients without peripheral neuropathy.

Figure 4 Mean of walking speed (m/s) in different groups.

Abbreviations: DPP, diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy; DNP, diabetic patients without peripheral neuropathy; CG, control group.

Figure 5 Mean of landing angle (°) in different groups.

Abbreviations: DPP, diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy; DNP, diabetic patients without peripheral neuropathy; CG, control group.

Figure 6 Mean of maximum swing angle (°) in different groups.

Abbreviations: DPP, diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy; DNP, diabetic patients without peripheral neuropathy; CG, control group.

Table 3 Comparison of Gait Parameters in Three Groups

Item	DPP Group (n=16)	DNP Group (n=57)	CG Group (n=73)	P1	P2	P3
Stride length (m)	1.26±0.19	1.30 ±0.14	1.34±0.11	0.076	0.228	0.511
Double-foot stance phase (s)	0.14±0.03	0.14±0.03	0.13±0.03	0.226	0.221	0.834
Stance phase (s)	0.70±0.06	0.69±0.03	0.68±0.07	0.285	0.344	0.816
Swing phase (s)	0.41±0.02	0.41±0.03	0.40±0.04	0.796	0.693	0.992
Single-foot stance phase (s)	0.41±0.02	0.41±0.03	0.40±0.04	0.812	0.720	0.992
Walking cadence (spm)	118.93±6.61	110.71±9.11	113.03±9.80	0.246	0.334	0.775
Walking speed (m/s)	1.15±0.22	1.21±0.18	1.27±0.16	0.041*	0.107	0.503
Off-ground angle (°)	−69.83±7.05	−70.56±6.46	−70.79±5.97	0.976	0.834	0.912
Landing angle (°)	13.59±4.77	15.68±4.94	18.35±5.35	0.003*	0.011*	0.323
Maximum swing angle (°)	16.15±4.01	18.81±4.63	20.82±4.67	0.001*	0.038*	0.105
Minimum swing angle (°)	−70.70±7.04	−71.54±6.48	−72.64±6.02	0.509	0.588	0.886
Foot progression angle (°)	12.65±5.10	11.90±4.47	10.27±4.16	0.125	0.093	0.819

Notes: “*” of P is less than 0.05.

Abbreviations: DPP, diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy; DNP, diabetic patients without peripheral neuropathy; CG, control group; P1, comparison between CG group and DPP group; P2, comparison between CG group and DNP group; P3, comparison between DPP group and DNP group.