Dietary Intakes of Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Prospective Observational Study

Figures & data

Table 1 Characteristics of Participants at Baseline

Characteristics	Value
Age (years)	32.5±4.51
Gestational age (weeks)	25.7±1.07
Pre-pregnancy Weight (kg)	58.5±9.67
Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2)	23.3±3.59
Gestational Weight Gain (kg)	13.8±3.42
Family history of DM, n (%)	75 (33.9)
History of GDM	44 (20.0)
Education level
Middle school or below, n (%)	55 (24.9)
High school	58 (26.2)
College or above	108 (48.9)
Gravidity
1	102 (46.2)
2	101 (45.8)
3	18 (8.0)
Therapy using Insulin, n (%)	20 (9.0)
Exercised regularly, n (%)	98 (44.3)
Sedentary time (h)	10 (9,11)
Accepted education
Ever	48 (21.8)
Never	173 (78.2)
Alcohol consumption
Ever	6 (2.7)
Never	215 (97.3)
Smoking
Ever	4 (1.8)
Never	217 (98.2)
Frequency of snack consumption
0	21 (9.5)
1	36 (16.2)
2	76 (34.2)
3	88 (39.6)
Hobby of eating sugary foods	93 (42.1)
Adverse pregnancy outcomes	123 (55.7)
Preterm birth	16 (7.2)
Caesarean delivery	66 (30.0)
Abortion	2 (1.0)
Shoulder dystocia	5 (2.2)
Pre-eclampsia	10 (4.5)
Low birth weight	25 (11.3)
Macrosomia	26 (11.8)

Table 2 Dietary Intake Comparison with Chinese DRIs

Variable		DRIs	P
Energy (kcal)
Pre-pregnancy BMI< 18.5	2276.7±654.9	2300	0.69
18.5≤Pre-pregnancy BMI<24.0	2272.2±553.6	2100	0.002
Pre-pregnancy BMI≥24.0	2266.0±586.8	1800	<0.001
Protein (%kcal)	19.2±4.2	15~20	0.008
Total fat (%kcal)	37.9±8.0	25~30	<0.001
Protein (g)	107.7±33.7	70	<0.001
Carbohydrate (%kcal)	43.8±9.2	50~60	<0.001
Carbohydrate (g)	77.1±5.2	175	<0.001
Dietary fiber (g)	15.1±6.4	25~30	<0.001
Iron (mg)	22.4±6.4	24	<0.001
Sodium (mg)	1751.7±826.1	1500	<0.001
Calcium (mg)	750.0±291.3	1000	<0.001
Potassium (mg)	2736.2±743.9	2000	<0.001
Zinc (mg)	14.6±5.0	9.5	<0.001
Selenium (mg)	74.3 (54.5,108.5)	65	<0.001
Iodine (μg)	199.1 (184.6,231.1)	230	0.009
Vitamin A (μgRE)	945.6 (717.7,1263.3)	770	<0.001
Vitamin B1 (mg)	1.2±0.5	1.4	<0.001
Vitamin B2 (mg)	1.3±0.4	1.4	0.01
Vitamin B6 (mg)	1.4±0.5	2.2	<0.001
Folate (μgDFE)	279.4 (169.3,399.9)	600	<0.001
Vitamin C (mg)	122.6 (73.9,182.6)	105	<0.001
Vitamin E (mgα-TE)	23.0±8.2	14	<0.001
Vitamin D (μg)	6.6±2.5	10	<0.001

Table 3 Dietary Intake According to the Statue of Pregnancy Outcome

Variable	Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes		t/z	P
	not	yes
Energy, (kcal)	2241.5±559.2	2265.5±580.0	−0.311	0.756
Protein, g	104.1±33.1	110.7±34.0	−1.442	0.151
Protein (%kcal)	18.7±4.3	19.7±4.0	−1.675	0.095
Fat (g)	91.7±31.8	98.5±36.0	−1.469	0.143
Total fat (%kcal)	36.6±7.1	38.8±8.5	−2.076	0.039
Carbohydrates (g)	256.3±75.7	238.5±77.6	1.714	0.088
Carbohydrate (%kcal)	45.9±8.6	42.3±9.4	2.924	0.004
Dietary fiber (g)	15.1±6.1	15.2±6.6	−0.145	0.885
Iron (mg)	22.1±6.3	22.6±6.4	−0.644	0.520
Sodium (mg)	1779.0±745.4	1695.5±795.2	0.797	0.427
Calcium (mg)	722.5±292.3	755.7±290.8	−0.842	0.804
Potassium (mg)	2664.7±697.8	2793.1±776.8	−1.277	0.203
Zinc (mg)	14.3±4.8	14.9±5.1	−0.857	0.393
Selenium (mg)	70.1 (53.9,101.3)	77.0 (53.6,113.6)	−0.874	0.382
Iodine (μg)	208.4 (188.6,249.2)	196.9 (182.4,220.7)	−2.736	0.006
Vitamin A (μgRE)	953.6 (732.9,1149.4)	950.4 (739.2,1400.3)	−0.696	0.487
Vitamin B1 (mg)	1.2±0.5	1.2±0.5	−0.598	0.550
Vitamin B2 (mg)	1.3±0.4	1.3±0.5	−0.276	0.783
Vitamin B6 (mg)	1.4±0.5	1.4±0.5	−0.074	0.941
Folate (μgDFE)	206.1 (158.7,379.8)	300.1 (169.6,425.2)	−1.520	0.129
Vitamin C (mg)	133.3±80.4	135.5±79.1	−0.197	0.844
Vitamin E (mgα-TE)	22.0±7.8	23.8±8.5	−1.602	0.110
Vitamin D (μg)	7.0±2.1	6.2±2.7	2.503	0.006

Table 4 Univariate and Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes

Variable	Univariate Logistic Regression		Multivariate Logistic Regression
	OR (95%Cl)	p	OR (95%Cl)	p
Carbohydrate (%kcal)	0.96 (0.93,0.99)	0.005	0.89 (0.83,0.96)	0.004
Fat (%kcal)	1.04 (1.00,1.07)	0.040	0.92 (0.85,1.01)	0.083
Iodine	1.0 (0.99.1.00)	0.030	0.99 (0.98,0.99)	0.027
Vitamin D	0.87 (0.81,1.0)	0.050	0.82 (0.72,0.94)	0.005
Weight gain	1.12 (1.03,1.22)	0.008	1.12 (1.02,1.24)	0.015
Exercise	0.57 (0.33,0.98)	0.040	0.46 (0.23,0.89)	0.023
Education level
Middle school or below	1		1
High school	2.154 (1.086,4.274)	0.028	1.96 (0.86,4.46)	0.105
College or above	1.032 (0.545,1.955)	0.922	1.00 (0.47,2.15)	0.98
Family history of DM	2.46 (1.36,4.47)	0.003	2.73 (1.36,5.48)	0.005