Vitamin D Status and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study in a Tertiary-Level Hospital in Antananarivo, Madagascar

Figures & data

Table 1 General Characteristics of the Study Population

Variables	Numbers	Percentage
Male gender	131	41.2
Age groups (year)
[36–39]	25	7.9
[40–49]	18	5.6
[50–59]	34	10.7
[60–69]	137	43.1
≥70	104	32.7
Cardiovascular risk factors
Hypertension	203	63.8
Dyslipidaemia	195	62.5
Overweight or obesity	141	44.3
Ex-smoking	98	30.8
Current smoking	25	7.9
Microalbuminuria	64	20.1
Diabetes duration ≥5 years	154	48.4
Diabetes treatment
Oral antidiabetics alone	178	56.0
Oral antidiabetics and insulin	65	20.4
Comprehensive lifestyle modification	51	16.0
Insulin alone	24	7.6
Diabetes complications
Peripheral neuropathy	139	43.7
Retinopathy	72	22.6
Diabetic kidney diseases	65	20.4
Lower limb arteriopathy	52	33.3
Carotid atherosclerosis	89	28.0
Ischemic heart disease	65	20.4
Ischemic stroke	8	2.5

Table 2 Distribution of Patients According to Their Vitamin D Status

Variables	Numbers	Percentage
Vitamin D deficiency	66	20.8
Vitamin D insufficiency	144	45.2
Normal vitamin D	108	34.0

Table 3 Factors Associated with Hypovitaminosis D

Variables	Hypovitaminosis D		Bivariate Analysis		Multivariate Analysis
	No (n1=108)	Yes (n2=210)	OR [95% CI]	p value	aOR [95% CI]	p value
Male gender, n (%)	42 (38.9)	89 (42.4)	1.15 [0.70–1.91]	0.2765
Median age, years [IQ]	64 [52–68]	65 [60–74]		0.0001*
Age groups, years
[36–39], n (%)	17 (15.7)	8 (3.8)	0.21 [0.08–0.51]	0.0005*
[40–49], n (%)	9 (8.3)	9 (4.3)	0.49 [0.19–1.27]	0.1460
[50–59], n (%)	8 (15.4)	8 (7.7)	1 (reference)
[60–69], n (%)	41 (38.0)	96 (45.7)	1.37 [0.84–2.28]	0.1144
≥70, n (%)	24 (22.2)	80 (38.1)	2.15 [1.26–3.66]	0.0018*
Median duration of diabetes, years	5 [2–8]	4 [2–8]		0.0738
Duration of diabetes ≥ 5 years	58 (53.7)	96 (45.7)	0.73 [0.45–1.15]	0.1776
Median Hb A1c, %	6.6 [6.1–8.4]	8.6 [7–10.1]		<0.0001*
Hb A1c ≥7%, n (%)	42 (38.9)	161 (76.7)	5.13 [3.03–8.80]	<0.0001*	4.97 [2.97–8.39]	<0.0001*
Peripheral neuropathy, n (%)	42 (38.9)	97 (46.2)	1.34 [0.82–2.23]	0.1304
Retinopathy, n (%)	8 (7.4)	64 (30.5)	5.45 [2.46–13.7]	<0.0001*	4.15 [1.85–9.32]	0.0006*
Diabetic kidney diseases, n (%)	25 (23.1)	40 (19.0)	0.78 [0.43–1.44]	0.2369

Notes: *Statistically significant (p value <0.05).

Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, Confidence Interval; Hb A1c, Glycated haemoglobin; IQ, Interquartile range; OR, odds ratio.

Table 4 Association Between Hypovitaminosis D, Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Macroangiopathies

Variables	Hypovitaminosis D		Bivariate Analysis		Multivariate Analysis
	No (n1=108)	Yes (n2=210)	OR [95% CI]	p value	aOR [95% CI]	p value
Hypertension, n (%)	33 (30.6)	170 (81.0)	9.57 [5.47–17.1]	<0.0001*	8.77 [4.76–16.2]	<0.0001*
Dyslipidaemia, n (%)	29 (26.9)	166 (79.0)	9.08 [4.03–15.7]	<0.0001*	8.05 [3.98–14.5]	<0.0001*
Overweight or obesity, n (%)	60 (55.6)	81 (38.6)	0.50 [0.31–0.83]	0.0028*	0.45 [0.26–0.77]	0.0037*
Ex-smoking, n (%)	9 (8.3)	89 (42.4)	8.04 [3.79–19.1]	<0.0001*	6.07 [2.78–13.3]	<0.0001*
Current smoking, n (%)	0 (0)	25 (11.9)	NE	<0.0001*
Microalbuminuria, n (%)	8 (7.4)	56 (26.7)	4.52 [2.03–11.5]	<0.0001*	2.95 [1.25–6.97]	0.0427*
Lower limb arteriopathy, n (%)	32 (29.6)	72 (34.3)	1.23 [0.73–2.12]	0.2390
Carotid atherosclerosis, n (%)	16 (14.8)	73 (34.8)	3.05 [1.64–5.98]	<0.0001*	2.96 [1.83–4.35]	0.0325*
Ischemic heart disease, n (%)	25 (23.1)	40 (19.0)	0.78 [0.42–1.44]	0.2369
Ischemic stroke, n (%)	0 (0)	8 (3.8)	NE	0.0345*

Notes: *Statistically significant (p value <0.05).

Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, Confidence Interval; NE, not estimable; OR, odds ratio.