Different Nanotechnology Approaches for Ciprofloxacin Delivery Against Multidrug-Resistant Microbes

Figures & data

Table 1 Ciprofloxacin-Resistant Problematic Bacterial Groups

S. No	Study Area	Study Period	Group of Bacteria	Results
1.	Brazil	2009–2013	Salmonella	43%
2.	Japan	1992	N. gonorrhoeae	40%
3.	India	1990–2000	≫	Most
4.	South Africa	2004–2007	≫	Increased: 7% to 32%
5.	Kenya	2007–2009	≫	Increased: 9.5% to 50%
6.	Europe	2013	≫	53%
7.	Latin America	2004–2010	≫	5–40%
8.	Pittsburgh	1996–2001	S. aureus	Increased: 8% to 20.7% (MSSA), 55.8% to 83.7% (MRSA)
9.	Asian countries	1980s–2010s	Campylobacters	77–99%
10.	South Africa		≫	91%
11.	United Arab Emirates		≫	85.4%
12.	Spain	1993–2003	≫	52.2%

Table 2 Different Parameters for Characterization of Nanoparticles

Nanoparticle Parameters	Instruments Used for Characterization
Particle size and particle size distribution	Zeta sizer, laser diffractometry, PCS, mercury porosimetry
Particle morphology	SEM, TEM, AFM
Particle charge	Laser droplet anemometry, zeta potentiometer
Surface hydrophobicity	Measurement of water contact angle, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, hydrophobic interaction chromatography
Chemical analysis of surface	Static secondary ion mass spectrometry
Carrier drug interaction	DSC
Nanoparticle dispersion stability	Critical flocculation temperature
Release profile	In-vitro release characteristic under physiologic and sink condition
Drug stability	Bioassay & chemoassay of drug extracted from nanoparticle

Notes: Reproduced from Patel S, Singh D, Srivastava S et al. Nanoparticles as a Platform for Antimicrobial Drug Delivery, Advances in Pharmacology and Pharmacy. 2017; 5(3): 31–43. Copyright©2017 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License.^23.

Abbreviations: PCS, photon correlation spectroscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; AFM, atomic force microscopy; DSC, differential scanning calorimetry.

Table 3 Sources of Nanomaterials for Ciprofloxacin Delivery

Nano-Ciprofloxacin Formulation	Source of Nanomaterial	Instruments for Characterization	Reference
Chitosan-loaded ciprofloxacin	Purchased (synthetic)	DSC, DLS	[24]
	Desert locusts, beetles, honey bee exoskeletons, and shrimp shells	Zeta sizer, FTIR, XRD, centrifugation, UV–Vis spectroscopy	[25]
Ciprofloxacin-loaded albumin	Human serum albumin	DLS, SEM, FTIR	[26]
Ciprofloxacin in arginine nanocarriers	l-Arginine, protamine and pectin	Microscopy, FTIR, and zeta sizer	[27]
Ciprofloxacin HCl-loaded CaCO3 NPs	Purchased	DLS, UV–Vis, zeta sizer, XRD, DSC, FTIR	[28]
Ciprofloxacin incorporated PLGA	Purchased	Zeta sizer, TEM, SEM, HPLC, DSC	[29]
Ciprofloxacin-loaded polysaccharide NPs	Purchased	Zeta sizer, PCS, UV–Vis, FTIR, electron microscopy	[30]
Ciprofloxacin HCl-loaded SLNs	Purchased	LLD, LDE, HPLC-UV, AUC, AFM, SEM, TEM,	[31]
Ciprofloxacin in liposomes	Lipids purchased	DLS, FES	[32]

Abbreviations: DSC, differential scanning calorimetry; FTIR, Fourier transform infrared; XRD; X-ray diffractometer; UV–Vis, ultraviolet–visible; DLS, dynamic light scattering; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; AUC, analytical ultra centrifuge; LLD, laser light diffraction; LDE, laser Doppler electrophoresis; AFM, atomic fluorescence microscopy; FES, fluorescence emission spectra; PCS, photon correlation spectroscopy.

Figure 1 Micellar nanosphere encapsulated ciprofloxacin incorporated into contact lens

Notes: Reproduced with permission from Garhwal R, Shady SF, Ellis EJ, et al. Sustained ocular delivery of ciprofloxacin using nanospheres and conventional contact lens materials. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53:1341-1352. Copyright © 2012 Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology.⁶⁴

Figure 2 Arginine grafted mesoporous silica nanoparticle targeting intracellular Salmonella.

Notes: Reproduced from Mudakavi RJ, Vanamali S, Chakravortty D, and Raichur AM. Development of arginine based nanocarriers for targeting and treatment of intracellular Salmonella, RSC Adv, 2017;7:7022. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence.²⁷

Figure 3 Ciprofloxacin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules and their effects.³¹

Notes: Reproduced from Torge A, Wagner S, Chaves PS, et al. Ciprofloxacin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules as mucus penetrating drug delivery system intended for the treatment of bacterial infections in cystic fibrosis. Int J Pharm. 2017;527(1–2):92–102. Copyright 2017, with permission from Elsevier.

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