Overview of air pollution and endocrine disorders

Figures & data

Table 1 Origins of air pollution from natural sources and from human activities

Form	Compound(s)	Source – natural	Source – human activity
Gases	Carbon dioxide (CO2)	Natural component – balanced between use in plant photosynthesis and release from animal respiration	Human activity is increasing levels especially through burning of fossil fuels and deforestation
	Carbon monoxide	Wild fires	Incomplete combustion of fuel (natural gas, coal, wood, petrol)
	Sulfur oxides, especially sulfur dioxide (SO2)	Volcanoes	Industrial activities; excess combines with atmospheric water to cause acid rain
	Nitrogen oxides, especially nitrogen dioxide	Thunderstorms	High-temperature combustion
	Ammonia		Agricultural processes
	Ground-level ozone		Combustion of fossil fuel
	Volatile organic compounds	Natural methane; vegetation; animal and vegetable waste; sewage	Excess methane from industrial and agricultural processes; industrial pollutants; waste incineration (including burning of plastics); chlorofluorocarbons (air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays); consumer products (especially with added fragrance or volatile solvents)
Particulate matter (solid particles and liquid droplets)	Dust, soil, acids, organic molecules including persistent organic pollutants, metals	Volcanoes, dust storms, forest fires, sea spray	Fuel combustion (motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft); power plants; industrial processes; cigarette smoking; consumer products (especially with volatile solvents or added fragrance); aerosol sprays (pesticides, herbicides, household cleaners, paints, glues, personal care products)
Radioactive pollutants		Radon gas from radioactive decay	Nuclear explosions

Note: Shaded areas indicate sources of EDCs.

Abbreviation: EDCs, endocrine disrupting chemicals.

Figure 1 Mechanisms of action of EDCs.

Note: Data from Darbre.⁵
Abbreviation: EDCs, endocrine disrupting chemicals.

Table 2 Sources of endocrine disrupting chemicals measured in air

Chemical	Use	Source of air pollution
Phthalates	Plasticizers to increase flexibility and transparency of plastic products	Plastics, personal care products, air fresheners
Bisphenol A	Manufacture of polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins	Plastic consumer goods, bottles, sports equipment, CDs, DVDs, coating pipes and food cans, thermal paper
Parabens	Preservatives to prevent microbial action	Personal care products, pharmaceuticals, paper products
Triclosan	Antimicrobial	Hospital scrub, personal care products, kitchen utensils, toys
Alkylphenols	Detergents	Cleaning products, personal care products
Synthetic musks	Fragrance	Personal care products, household cleaning agents, air fresheners, candles
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers	Flame retardants	Soft furnishings
Perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid	Stain resistance coatings	Soft furnishings, fabrics
Polychlorinated biphenyls	Industrial lubricants and coolants especially in electrical products	Restricted use since 1970s but ubiquitous persistent organic pollutants
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans	None	By-products of combustion
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons	None	Incomplete combustion of organic materials
Organochlorine pesticides	Pesticides	Agricultural and domestic spraying
Pyrethroids	Pesticide	Agricultural and domestic spraying
Cadmium	Cigarettes	Cigarette smoke
Aluminum salts	Antiperspirant	Aerosol-format personal care products

Figure 2 Outline of the influences of EDCs on human health.

Notes: Oval boxes indicate broad health issues affected; square boxes indicate specific effects linked to EDCs. Data from Darbre.⁵
Abbreviation: EDCs, endocrine disrupting chemicals.

DarbrePDEndocrine Disruption and Human HealthElsevierNew York2015

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