Combined Effect Of Coffee Consumption And Cigarette Smoking On Serum Levels Of Vitamin B12, Folic Acid, And Lipid Profile In Young Male: A Cross-Sectional Study

Figures & data

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of study design.

Abbreviations: N, sample size; NS/C+, nonsmokers and moderate coffee consumers; NS/C++, nonsmokers and heavy coffee consumers; S/C+, smokers and moderate coffee consumers; S/C++, smokers and heavy coffee consumers.

Table 1 Clinical Parameters And Characteristics Of The Study Participants Subdivided By Their Coffee Consumption Into Two Groups; Moderate (C+) And Heavy (C++) Coffee Consumers (Mean±SD)

Clinical Parameters	Participants (n=117)
	C+ (n=61)	C++ (n=56)	Total (n=117)
FBG (mg/dL)	87.05±8.38	86.84±8.32	86.95±8.32
BMI (kg/m^2)	25.49±4.05	25.91±4.86	25.70±4.45
BW (kg)	79.10±14.04	80.10±15.87	79.58±14.89
B12 (pg/mL)	350.89±135.56	364.41124.76	357.41130.06
Folic acid (ng/mL)	9.64±3.15	9.98±3.46	9.80±3.29
RBCs (× 10^12/L)	5.23 0.65	5.43±0.79	5.3 ±0.72
Hgb (g/dL)	15.92±1.16	15.98±1.49	15.94±1.32
PCV (%)	46.05±4.59	46.68±5.61	46.34±5.07
MCV (fL)	88.10±4.44	86.45±5.12	87.34±4.81
MCH (pg)	30.61±2.72	29.59±3.48	30.13±3.12
MCHC (g/dL)	34.72±2.40	34.33±2.55	34.54±2.46

Abbreviations: C+, moderate coffee consumers (1–2 cups/day); C++, heavy coffee consumers (>3 cups/day); FBG, fasting blood glucose; BMI, body mass index; BW, body weight; B12, vitamin B12, RBCs, red blood cells; Hgb, hemoglobin (g/dL); PCV, packed cell volume; MCV, mean cell volume; MCH, mean cell hemoglobin; MCHC, mean cell hemoglobin concentration; N, sample size.

Table 2 Clinical Parameters And Characteristics Of The Study Participants Subdivided By Their Combined Smoking (Nonsmoker (NS)/Smoker (S)) And Coffee Consumption (Moderate (C+)/Heavy (C++)) Behavior Into Four Groups (Mean±SD)

Clinical Parameters	Participants (n=117)
	NS/C+ (n=39)	NS/C++ (n=21)	S/C+ (n=22)	S/C++ (n=35)
FBG (mg/dL)	87.31±8.97	86.71±6.97	86.59±7.39	86.91±9.14
BMI (kg/m^2)	26.01±3.39	25.52±3.84	24.68±4.92	26.14±5.41
BW (kg)	80.78±12.17	79.33±15.59	76.40±16.59	80.55±16.27
B12 (pg/mL)	337.23±124.73	344.00±98.46	375.63±153.33	377.01±138.44
Folic acid (ng/mL)	9.85±3.05	9.23±2.72	9.27±3.35	10.42±3.79
RBCs (× 10^12/L)	5.15±0.61	5.54±1.01	5.38±0.69	5.38±0.68
Hgb (g/dL)	15.95±1.33	15.97±1.44	15.87±0.78	15.98±1.54
PCV (%)	45.74±4.54	47.12±6.04	46.62±4.75	46.47±5.49
MCV (fL)	88.36±4.01	86.36± 3.15	87.61±5.21	86.50±5.86
MCH (pg)	30.91±2.52	29.76±2.43	30.06±3.06	29.51±3.90
MCHC (g/dL)	34.96±2.39	34.46±2.20	34.27±2.40	34.27±2.73

Abbreviations: NS/C+, nonsmoker and moderate coffee consumers (1–2 cups/day); NS/C++, nonsmoker and heavy coffee consumers (>3 cups/day); S/C+, smoker and moderate coffee consumers (1–2 cups/day); S/C++, smoker and heavy coffee consumers (>3 cups/day); FBG, fasting blood glucose; BMI, body mass index; BW, body weight; B12, vitamin B12, RBCs, red blood cells; Hgb, hemoglobin (g/dL); PCV, packed cell volume; MCV, mean cell volume; MCH, mean cell hemoglobin; MCHC, mean cell hemoglobin concentration; N, sample size.

Table 3 Lipid Profile Parameters Of The Study Participants Subdivided By Their Coffee Consumption Into Two Groups; Moderate (C+) And Heavy (C++) Coffee Consumers (Mean±SD)

Lipid Profile Parameters	Participants (n=117)
	C+ (n=61)	C++ (n=56)	Total (n=117)
TG (mg/dL)	128.35±61.41	129.44±49.72	128.88±55.77
TC (mg/dL)	169.73±31.99	185.58±31.85	177.41±32.75
HDL-C (mg/dL)	51.65±7.79	49.15±9.49	50.39±8.72
LDL-C (mg/dL)	97.39±31.13	111.73±32.41	104.34±32.41

Abbreviations: C+, moderate coffee consumers (1–2 cups/day); C++, heavy coffee consumers (>3 cups/day); TG, triglycerides; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; N, sample size.

Table 4 Lipid Profile Parameters Of The Study Participants Subdivided By Their Combined Smoking (Nonsmoker (NS)/Smoker (S)) And Coffee Consumption (Moderate (C+)/Heavy (C++)) Behavior Into Four Groups (Mean±SD)

Lipid Profile Parameters	Participants (n=117)
	NS/C+ (n=39)	NS/C++ (n=21)	S/C+ (n=22)	S/C++ (n=35)
TG (mg/dL)	139.58±61.57	139.12±46.92	110.95±58.43	124.13±51.15
TC (mg/dL)	177.23±34.17	195.94±23.69	158.1±24.82	179.9±34.59
HDL-C (mg/dL)	51.64±7.31	50.53±9.69	51.65±8.61	48.39±9.45
LDL-C (mg/dL)	103.06±34.82	118.0 ±19.31	88.6±22.40	108.26±37.57

Abbreviations: NS/C+, nonsmoker and moderate coffee consumers (1–2 cups/day); NS/C++, nonsmoker and heavy coffee consumers (>3 cups/day); S/C+, smoker and moderate coffee consumers (1–2 cups/day); S/C++, smoker and heavy coffee consumers (>3 cups/day); TG, triglycerides; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; N, sample size.

Table 5 Combined Versus Single Effect Of Cigarette Smoking And Coffee Consumption On Clinical Parameters Of The Participants Using 2-Way ANOVA Test

Clinical Parameters	Cigarette Smoking (CS, n=57)		Coffee Consumption (CC, n=117)		Combined Effects Of CS And CC (n=57)
	F-Test	P-Value	F-Test	P-Value	F-Test	P-Value
FBG (mg/dL)	0.026	0.873	0.007	0.934	0.080	0.777
BMI (Kg/m^2)	0.152	0.698	0.281	0.597	1.122	0.292
BW (kg)	0.263	0.609	0.191	0.663	0.821	0.367
B12 (pg/mL)	1.984	0.162	0.026	0.872	0.011	0.915
Folic acid (ng/mL)	0.208	0.650	0.161	0.689	1.808	0.182
RBC (× 10^12/L)	0.049	0.826	1.521	0.221	1.498	0.224
Hgb (g/dL)	0.016	0.900	0.054	0.816	0.021	0.886
PCV (%)	0.011	0.917	0.303	0.583	0.471	0.494
MCV (fL)	0.084	0.772	2.205	0.141	0.182	0.671
MCH (pg)	0.672	0.415	1.554	0.216	0.195	0.660
MCHC (g/dL)	0.661	0.418	0.213	0.646	0.225	0.637

Abbreviations: FBG, fasting blood glucose; BMI, body mass index; B12, vitamin B12, RBCs, red blood cells; Hgb, hemoglobin; PCV, packed cell volume; MCV, mean cell volume; MCH, mean cell hemoglobin; MCHC, mean cell hemoglobin concentration.

Table 6 Combined Versus Single Effect Of Cigarette Smoking And Coffee Consumption On Lipid Profile Parameters Of The Participants Using 2-Way ANOVA Test

Lipid Profile Parameter	Cigarette Smoking (CS, n=57)		Coffee consumption (CC, n=117)		Combined Effects Of CS And CC (n=57)
	F-Test	P-Value	F-Test	P-Value	F-Test	P-Value
TG (mg/dL)	3.567	0.062	0.303	0.583	0.349	0.556
TC (mg/dL)	7.399	0.008	9.823	0.002	0.057	0.812
HDL-C (mg/dL)	0.337	0.563	1.418	0.237	0.342	0.560
LDL-C (mg/dL)	3.424	0.067	6.984	0.010	0.127	0.723

Abbreviations: TG, triglycerides; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; N, sample size.

Table 7 The Multivariate Association Between Hematological Parameters, Age And Lipid Profile Parameters As Independent Variables And Lipid Profile Parameters, Vitamin B12 And Folic Acid As Dependent Variables In Nonsmoker And Moderate Coffee Consumers Group (NS/C+, n=39) By Using Multiple Linear Regression (Stepwise Method)

Dependent Clinical Parameters	Univariate Effects Estimates (Independent Parameters)	Coefficients
		R	R^2	F-Test	P-Value
TG (mg/dL)	MCHC (g/dL)	0.476	0.227	5.875	0.025
	MCH (pg)	0.642	0.412	6.645	0.006
	MCV (fL)	0.814	0.663	11.78	0.000
	Age (years)	0.859	0.738	11.98	0.000
	HDL-C (mg/dL)	0.894	0.800	12.81	0.000
TC (mg/dL)	LDL-C (mg/dL)	0.947	0.896	172.975	0.000
	TG (mg/dL)	0.977	0.954	195.519	0.000
	HDL-C (mg/dL)	0.992	0.985	388.666	0.000
	FBG (mg/dL)	0.995	0.990	421.098	0.000
LDL-C (mg/dL)	TC (mg/dL)	0.947	0.896	172.975	0.000
	TG (mg/dL)	0.980	0.960	227.223	0.000
	HDL-C (mg/dL)	0.993	0.986	434.076	0.000
	FBG (mg/dL)	0.995	0.991	458.942	0.000
B12 (pg/mL)	Folic acid (ng/mL)	0.451	0.204	5.112	0.035
Folic acid (ng/mL)	B12 (pg/mL)	0.451	0.204	5.112	0.035

Abbreviations: TG, triglycerides; MCHC, mean cell hemoglobin concentration; MCH, mean cell hemoglobin; MCV, mean cell volume; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TC, total cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; FBG, fasting blood glucose; B12, vitamin B12; R, Pearson linear correlation coefficient; R², determinant coefficient.

Table 8 The Multivariate Association Between Hematological Parameters, BMI And LDL-C As Independent Variables And Lipid Profile Parameters; TG, TC And LDL-C As Dependent Variables In Nonsmoker And Heavy Coffee Consumers Group (NS/C++, n=21) By Using Multiple Linear Regression (Stepwise Method)

Dependent Clinical Parameters	Univariate Effects Estimates (Independent Parameters)	Coefficients
		R	R^2	F-Test	P-Value
TG (mg/dL)	BMI (kg/m^2)	0.910	0.828	19.197	0.012
TC (mg/dL)	LDL-C (mg/dL)	0.912	0.831	19.661	0.011
	MCH (pg)	0.992	0.983	87.603	0.002
LDL-C (mg/dL)	MCHC (g/dL)	0.970	0.941	63.997	0.001
	Folic acid (ng/mL)	0.996	0.993	209.279	0.001

Abbreviations: TG, triglycerides; BMI, body mass index; TC, total cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; MCH, mean cell hemoglobin; MCHC, mean cell hemoglobin concentration; R, Pearson linear correlation coefficient; R², determinant coefficient.

Table 9 The Multivariate Association Between Hematological Parameters, Body Weight TC, And TG As Independent Variables And Lipid Profile Parameters; TG, TC And LDL-C And Vitamin B12 As Dependent Variables In Smoker And Moderate Coffee Consumers Group (S/C+, n=22) By Using Multiple Linear Regression (Stepwise Method)

Dependent Clinical Parameters	Univariate Effects Estimates (Independent Parameters)	Coefficients
		R	R^2	F-Test	P-Value
TG (mg/dL)	TC (mg/dL)	0.647	0.418	9.344	0.009
TC (mg/dL)	TG (mg/dL)	0.647	0.418	9.344	0.009
LDL-C (mg/dL)	MCV (fL)	0.560	0.341	5.949	0.030
B12 (pg/mL)	PCV (%)	0.658	0.433	9.918	0.008
	Body weight (kg)	0.803	0.645	10.878	0.002

Abbreviations: TG, triglycerides; TC, total cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; MCV, mean vell Volume; PCV, packed cell volume; R, Pearson linear correlation coefficient; R², determinant coefficient.

Table 10 The Multivariate Association Between Hematological And Lipid Profile Parameters As Independent Variables And Lipid Profile Parameters And Vitamin B12 As Dependent Variables In Smoker And Heavy Coffee Consumers Group (S/C++, n=35) By Using Multiple Linear Regression (Stepwise Method)

Dependent Clinical Parameters	Univariate Effects Estimates (Independent Parameters)	Coefficients
		R	R^2	F-Test	P-Value
TG (mg/dL)	HDL-C (mg/dL)	0.472	0.222	5.433	0.031
	MCV (fL)	0.703	0.495	8.818	0.002
TC (mg/dL)	LDL-C (mg/dL)	0.930	0.865	122.115	0.000
	TG (mg/dL)	0.967	0.935	129.863	0.000
HDL-C (mg/dL)	TC (mg/dL)	0.524	0.275	7.201	0.015
	RBCs (× 10^12/L)	0.647	0.419	6.497	0.008
LDL-C (mg/dL)	TC (mg/dL)	0.930	0.865	122.115	0.000
	TG (mg/dL)	0.962	0.926	112.348	0.000
	HDL-C (mg/dL)	0.970	0.941	91.044	0.000
B12 (pg/mL)	Folic acid (ng/mL)	0.635	0.403	12.815	0.002
Folic acid (ng/mL)	B12 (pg/mL)	0.635	0.403	12.815	0.002

Abbreviations: TG, triglycerides; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; MCV, mean cell volume; TC, total cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; RBCs, red blood cells; B12, vitamin B12; R, Pearson linear correlation coefficient; R², determinant coefficient.