Prevalence of Anemia and Associated Risk Factors Among Non-Pregnant Women in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study

Figures & data

Table 1 Frequency Distribution of Sociodemographics and Lifestyle Characteristics of Study Subjects (n = 250)

Characteristics	Variables	Subjects
		F	(%)
Age group	<29	14	5.6
	30–39	52	20.8
	40–49	126	50.4
	>50 Years	58	23.2
Family income	1000 USD or less	132	52.8
	More than 1000 USD	118	47.2
Education level	High school or less	155	62
	College or more	95	38
Marital status	Married	175	70
	Unmarried	75	30
Work status	Yes	90	36
	Never	160	64
Menstruation	Yes	177	70.8
	No	73	29.2
Frequency of menstrual cycle	Regular	202	80.8
	Irregular	48	19.2
Duration of menstruation	< 7 days	47	18.8
	≥ 7 days	132	52.8
	Non	71	28.4
Breastfeeding	No	207	82.8
	Yes	43	17.2
Number of kids	< 4	74	29.6
	≥ 4	176	70.4

Abbreviation: F, frequency.

Table 2 Average Daily Intake of Nutrients (24-h Recall) in Relation to the Dietary Requirement Intake (DRI) for Respondents Using the t-Test

Nutrients	Mean Intake	DRI	Mean Difference	t-Test
Calories	902.54	1223.4	−320.86	**
Carbohydrates (g)	89.28	100.00	−10.72	**
Protein (g)	42.78	42.38	0.4	NS
Fat (g)	41.59a	33.98	7.61	**
SFA	19.95a	13.59	6.36	**
USFA	23.47a	40.78	−17.31	**
Cholesterol (mg)	232.72	300.00	−67.28	**
Fiber (g)	12.25	25.00	−12.75	**
Vit. A (µg)	214.57	500.00	−285.43	**
Vit. C (mg)	15.86	60.00	−44.14	**
Vit. E (mg)	1.97	12.00	−10.03	**
Vit. D (µg)	305.55	600.00	−294.45	**
Folic acid (µg)	107.81	350.00	−242.19	**
Vit. B12 (µg)	0.80	2.00	−1.2	NS
Niacin (mg)	3.09	14.00	−10.91	**
Vit. B6 (mg)	0.28	1.30	−1.02	NS
Riboflavin (mg)	0.28	1.10	−0.82	NS
Iron (mg)	2.28	8.10	−5.82	**
Na (mg)	4.75	1.50	3.25	*
Ca (mg)	401.17	800.00	−398.83	**
P (mg)	249.27	580.00	−330.73	**
K (mg)	2.66	4.70	−2.04	NS
Zn (mg)	2.10	6.80	−4.7	**
Cr (µg)	3.20	25.00	−21.8	**
Mg (mg)	62.78	320.00	−257.22	**

Notes: **P ≤ 0.01; *P ≤ 0.05; difference: mean – DRI.

Abbreviations: DRI, dietary recommended intake; NS, not significant; SFA, saturated fatty acids; USFA, unsaturated fatty acids.

Table 3 Frequency Distribution of Anaemia Proxies and BMI of the Respondents

Anemia Proxy	Proxies Classification	Subjects
		F	%
Hb
Severe	<7 g/dl	2	0.80
Moderate	7–10 g/dl	25	10.0
Mild	10–11.6 g/dl	44	17.60
Sufficient	11.6–15 g/dl	171	68.40
High	Hb >15 g/dl	8	3.20
Total		250	100
Ferritin
iron depletion	<15 μg/L	90	36.00
Moderate	15–100 μg/L	138	55.20
High	>100 μg/L	22	8.80
Total		250	100
Hct
Low	<36%	70	28.00
Normal	>36%	180	72.00
Total		250	100
RBC
Low	<3.8	3	1.20
Normal	3.8–5.2	221	88.40
High	>5.2	26	10.40
Total		250	100
MCV
Low	< 80 fl	79	31.60
Normal	80–94 fl	169	67.60
High	≥95 fl	2	0.80
Total		250	100
MCH
Low	<27 pg	124	49.60
Normal	(27–31 pg	117	46.80
High	>31 pg	9	3.60
Total		250	100
MCHC
Low	<32 g/dl	113	45.20
Normal	32–36 g/dl	131	52.40
High	>36 g/dl	6	2.40
Total		250	100
BMI
Underweight	<18.5	7	2.8
Normal	18.5–24.9	52	20.9
Overweight	≥25.0	53	21.2
Obese G1	30.0–34.9	71	28.5
Obese G2	35.0–39.9	44	17.7
Obese G3	≥ 40.0	23	9.2
Total		250	100

Note: Chi-Square (P = 0.0) for each parameter.

Abbreviations: F, frequency; Hb, hemoglobin; Hct, hematocrit; RBC, red blood count; MCV, mean corpuscular volume; MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin; MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; BMI, body mass index.

Table 4 Frequency Distribution of Anaemic and Non-Anaemic Respondents According to Sociodemographic and BMI Data

Variables		Anaemic		Non-Anemic				Total
				Sufficient		High
		N	%	N	%	N	%
Age Groups	<29	3	21.43	10	71.43	1	7.14	14
	30–39 years	18	34.62	29	55.77	5	9.61	52
	40–49 years	40	31.75	84	66.67	2	1.59	126
	≥50 years	10	17.24	40	68.97	8	13.81	58
Family Income	≤1000 USD	40	30.30	87	65.91	5	3.79	132
	>1000 USD	31	26.27	78	66.10	9	7.63	118
Education Level	High school or less	46	29.68	102	65.81	7	4.52	155
	College or more	25	26.32	65	68.42	5	5.26	95
Marital Status	Married	50	28.57	116	66.29	9	5.14	175
	Unmarried	21	28	49	65.33	5	6.67	75
Work Status	Yes	27	30	60	66.67	3	3.33	90
	Never	44	27.5	109	68.12	7	4.37	160
Menstruation	Yes	64	36.16	107	60.45	6	3.39	177
	No	20	27.40	49	67.12	4	5.48	73
Frequency of menstruation	Regular	91	45.05	106	52.47	5	2.47	202
	Irregular	16	33.33	31	64.58	1	2.08	48
Duration of menstruation	<7 days	13	27.66	30	63.83	4	8.51	47
	≥7 days	47	35.61	80	60.61	5	3.79	132
	No menstruation	11	15.49	58	81.69	2	2.82	71
Breastfeeding	No	51	24.64	141	68.12	15	7.25	207
	Yes	20	46.51	14	32.56	9	20.91	43
Number of kids	Less than 4	26	35.14	40	54.05	8	10.8	74
	4 and more	45	25.57	114	64.77	17	9.66	176
BMI	Underweight	4	57.14	3	42.86	0	0	7
	Normal	14	26.92	36	69.23	2	3.85	52
	Overweight	11	20.75	42	79.24	0	0	53
	Obese G1	25	35.21	46	64.79	0	0	71
	Obese G2	10	22.73	29	65.91	5	11.41	44
	Obese G3	8	34.78	14	60.87	1	4.35	23

Abbreviation: N, number of respondents.

Table 5 Spearman Correlation and Multiple Logistic Regression Between Sociodemographic Data and Anaemia Proxies of Respondents (n = 250)

Independent Variables/Dependent Variables	Sociodemographic Factors
	Age	OR (95% CI)	Family Income	OR (95% CI)	Education Level	OR (95% CI))	Marital Status	OR (95% CI))	Work Status	OR (95% CI))	Menstrual Cycle	OR (95% CI)	Breast Feeding	OR (95% CI)	Number of Kids	OR (95% CI)
Hb
Severe	−0.103*	0.52 (0.30–0.91)	0.872	1.82 (0.7–1.9)	0.359**	1.41 (0.7–1.5)	0.552*	1.65 (1.1–1.8)	−0.110*	0.62 (0.3–0.7)	−0.289*	0.54 (0.4–0.7)	−0.26**	0.43 (0.3–0.7)	−0.29**	0.52 (0.7–1.2)
Moderate	−0.402*	0.80 (0.51–1.23)	0.273*	1.26 (0.92–1.4)	0.465*	1.56 (0.8–1.9)	0.219**	1.32 (0.6–1.4)	−0.295*	0.71 (0.5–1.2)	−0.260*	0.61 (0.3–1.1)	−0.326*	0.90 (0.5–1.1)	−0.162*	0.41 (0.3–0.6)
Mild	−0.03**	0.23 (0.16–0.62)	0.020**	1.07 (0.8–1.1)	0.027**	1.03 (0.2–1.1)	0.088*	1.04 (0.4–1.2)	−0.015*	0.20 (0.1–0.6)	−0.205**	0.83 (0.6–0.9)	−0.03**	0.23 (0.1–0.4)	−0.088*	0.37 (0.1–1.1)
Sufficient	−0.127	0.71 (0.61–1.59)	0.085	1.03 (0.5–1.3)	0.016*	1.05 (0.7–1.2)	0.128	1.24 (1.2–1.4)	−0.213**	0.53 (0.4–1.4)	−0.055	0.23 (0.2–0.6)	−0.02*	0.31 (0.2–0.8)	−0.095*	0.31 (0.2–0.7)
High level	−0.64*	0.93 (0.73–1.63)	0.866**	1.9 (1.6–1.97)	0.009**	1.01 (0.4–1.3)	0.121*	1.23 (0.7–1.5)	−0.349	0.8 (0.6–1.3)	−0.019**	0.70 (0.6–1.4)	−0.274*	0.84 (0.7–1.3)	−0.14**	0.82 (0.6–1.4)
Ferritin
Low	−0.144*	0.77 (0.63–1.91)	0.050*	1.12 (1.1–1.5)	0.121*	1.36 (1.2–2.1)	0.081*	1.02 (0.7–1.3)	−0.161	0.61 (0.5–0.9)	−0.082*	0.63 (0.3–0.7)	−0.12**	0.70 (0.3–1.4)	−0.149*	0.51 (0.1–0.7)
Moderate	−0.15**	0.81 (0.67–1.78)	0.060	1.01 (1.0–1.2)	0.072	1.04 (0.9–1.2)	0.105**	1.47 (1.1–1.6)	−0.278**	0.74 (0.8–1.3)	−0.080	0.72 (0.1–1.4)	−0.998	0.98 (0.5–1.6)	−0.222	0.74 (0.6–0.9)
High	−0.28**	0.87 (0.74–0.97)	0.164**	1.85 (1.4–0.9)	−0.081**	0.44 (0.2–0.8)	−0.520*	0.77 (0.3–0.8)	0.068	1.07 (0.7–1.2)	0.293*	1.51 (1.3–2.3)	0.02**	1.07 (0.8–1.3)	0.92**	2.0 (1.4–2.5)
Hct
Low	−0.26*	0.76 (0.70–0.88)	0.289*	1.35 (1.1–1.5)	0.277*	1.52 (1.3–2.2)	0.403**	1.39 (0.8–2.3)	−0.17*	0.68 (0.4–1.1)	−0.041*	0.61 (0.4–1.6)	−0.31**	0.73 (0.4–0.9)	−0.03**	0.45 (0.3–0.7)
High	0.069**	1.12 (1.30–1.54)	−0. 383*	0.79 (0.6–1.4)	−0.252	0.67 (0.60–0.9)	−0.180**	0.64 (0.6–1.4)	0.015	1.08 (0.92–1.4)	−0.045**	0.49 (0.3–0.6)	0.213*	1.4 (1.2–1.7)	0.320*	1.54 (1.1–1.6).
RBC
Low	−0.17	0.79 (0.55–0.96)	0.140**	1.24 (1.2–1.7)	0.131*	1.16 (0.7–1.4)	0.071*	1.07 (0.7–1.2)	−0.031	0.72 (0.6–0.9)	−0.02	0.32 (0.2–0.5)	−0.08	0.71 (0.4–0.8)	−0.19	0.42 (0.1–0.8)
Normal	−0.047*	0.09 (0.11–0.34)	0.069	1.03 (0.7–1.2)	0.044**	1.08 (0.6–1.3)	0.006	1.02 (0.5–1.3)	0.056	1.37 (1.4–1.6)	0.010*	1.07 (0.9–1.3)	0.053*	1.3 (1.1–1.6)	0.016*	1.06 (1.0–1.1)
High	−0.825	0.92 (0.93–1.22)	0.308*	1.51 (1.1–1.8)	0.42	1.76 (1.5–2.5)	0.017*	1.05 (0.7–1.1)	−0.27	0.86 (0.8–1.5)	−0.113**	0.73 (0.6–1.4)	−0.321	0.86 (0.8–1.2)	−0.073*	0.78 (0.5–0.9)
MCV
Low	−0.07**	0.18 (0.16–0.54)	0.419*	1.57 (1.4–1.6)	0.462	1.79 (0.9–1.8)	0.179**	1.48 (0.9–1.7)	−0.15	0.59 (0.6–1.7)	−0.053	0.51 (0.3–0.8)	−0.08	0.63 (0.4–1.4)	−0.05**	0.35 (0.2–0.6)
Normal	−0.274*	0.74 (0.67–0.1.3)	0.244	1.17 (0.8–1.2)	0.998**	2.1 (1.6–2.7)	0.296*	1.18 (0.7–1.4)	0.032	1.09 (0.7–1.3)	0.0593**	1.22 (0.9–1.7)	0.29**	1.37 (1.0–2.1)	0.62*	1.80 (1.2–2.2)
High	−0.055*	0.13 (0.07–0.73)	0.039*	1.22 (1.1–1.3)	0.034*	1.04 (1.0–1.3)	0.059*	1.04 (0.4–1.3)	−0.013	0.85 (0.5–91)	−0.002	0.81 (0.4–1.2)	−0.203*	0.87 (0.6–1.1)	−0.523	0.91 (0.5–1.4)
MCH
Low	−0.044	0.07 (0.02–0.0.1)	0.092**	1.03 (0.4–1.1)	0.127*	1.23 (0.6–1.4)	0.424*	1.56 (1.2–1.6)	−0.060	0.54 (0.2–87)	−0.154	0.75 (0.6–1.3)	−0.145*	0.64 (0.4–1.4)	−0.47**	0.78 (0.4–0.9)
Normal	−0.12**	0.54 (0.30–0.76)	0.034**	1.08 (0.6–1.4)	0.597	1.66 (1.2–1.8)	0.16	0.44 (0.2–0.5)	−0.088	0.39 (0.2–1.1)	−0.603**	0.82 (0.5–1.2)	−0.32**	0.49 (0.2–1.2)	−0.11**	0.53 (0.1–0.7)
High	−0.48*	0.78 (0.60–1.33)	0.145*	1.3 (1.1–1.7)	0.116**	1.07 (0.8–1.2)	0.0073**	1.01 (0.6–1.2)	−0.035	0.40 (0.3–0.7)	−0.281**	0.64 (0.5–1.6)	−0.248	0.54 (0.3–1.5)	−0.61**	0.8 (0.3–1.6)
MCHC
Low	−0.69**	0.97 (0.91–1.27)	0.189**	1.5 (1.0–1.6)	−0.132*	0.74 (0.6–0.9)	0.564**	1.62 (0.2–1.7)	−0.135*	0.70 (0.6–1.6)	−0.146*	0.33 (0.2–0.6)	−0.54**	0.79 (0.6–1.2)	−0.123	0.53 (0.3–0.8)
Normal	−0.21	0.45 (0.34–0.78)	0.065	1.06 (0.6–1.3)	0.059	1.07 (0.8–1.4)	0.125	1.25 (1.2–1.4)	−0.505**	0.89 (0.7–1.4)	−0.130*	0.5 (0.3–0.7)	−0.260	0.52 (0.4–1.4)	−0.25**	0.42 (0.2–0.7)
High	−0.76**	0.88 (0.72–1.07)	0.164**	1.3 (0.9–1.40)	0.607**	1.8 (1.5–2.4)	0.794**	1.76 (1.5–2.1)	−0.280**	0.45 (0.2–0.7)	−0.670**	0.83 (0.6–1.2)	−0.273*	0.81 (0.3–1.1)	−0.34**	0.61 (0.5–1.3)

Notes: **P ≤ 0.01; *P ≤ 0.05.

Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.

Table 6 Spearman Correlation and Multiple Logistic Regression Between Food Intake and Anaemia Proxies and Body Mass Index (BMI) of Respondents (n = 250)

Independent Variables/Dependent Variables	Anaemia Proxies
	Hb (g/dl)	OR (95% CI)	RBC/mm^3	OR (95% CI)	Ferritin (μg/L)	OR (95% CI)	Iron (μg/L)	OR (95% CI)	MCV (fl)	OR (95% CI)	MCH (pg)	OR (95% CI)	BMI	OR (95% CI)
Calories	0.01*	1.26 (0.30–1.91)	0.015**	1.54 (1.29–1.69)	0.075*	1.30 (0.96–1.39)	0.022*	1.15 (0.70–1.21)	0.053	1.18 (0.71–1.32)	0.057*	1.27 (1.25–1.33)	0.113**	1.70 (1.20–1.94)
Carbs (g)	0.046	1.42 (1.32–1.87)	0.063*	1.68 (1.65–1.74)	0.003	1.09 (1.0–1.21)	0.026	1.19 (0.80–1.30)	0.022**	1.34 (1.01–1.45)	0.013	1.04 (0.92–1.12)	0.030*	1.43 (1.05–1.58)
Protein (g)	0.034**	1.65 (0.90–2.01)	0.035	1.37 (0.97–1.59)	0.069*	1.07 (0.93–1.38)	0.036	1.27 (1.05–1.47)	0.026	1.23 (1.1–1.50)	0.042	1.38 (0.87–1.45)	0.007	–
Fat (g)	0.019*	1.12 (0.86–1.77)	0.026	1.28 (0.88–1.36)	0.065**	1.40 (1.20–1.83)	0.003	1.03 (0.83–1.12)	0.027	1.15 (0.90–1.31)	0.045*	1.44 (0.93–1.55)	0.032**	1.52 (0.83–1.60)
SFA	0.073	1.32 (1.10–1.62)	−0.087*	0.68 (0.23–0.93)	−0.014	0.26 (0.10–0.52)	0.021	1.08 (0.72–1.24)	0.056	1.40 (0.82–1.66)	0.05	1.51 (1.23–1.83)	0.129*	1.61 (0.97–2.01)
USFA	0.036	1.07 (0.98–1.20)	0.006	–	−0.010	–	0.005	–	0.056	1.40 (0.62–1.80)	0.009	–	0.005	–
Cholesterol (mg)	0.053**	1.71 (1.34–1.92)	−0.002	0.45 (0.30–1.27)	0.039**	1.56 (1.16–1.75)	0.006	1.15 (0.94–1.33)	0.019*	1.34 (0.57–1.40)	0.007	1.02 (0.66–1.34)	0.015*	1.41 (1.20–1.67)
Fiber (g)	0.131*	1.85 (1.50–2.04)	0.141*	1.62 (1.32–1.80)	0.07	1.05 (0.94–1.20)	0.132*	1.59 (1.40–1.99)	0.066	1.52 (1.32–1.98)	0.084*	1.58 (0.86–1.78)	0.019	1.03 (0.64–1.34)
Vit. A (µg)	0.125*	1.79 (1.20–1.98)	0.112	1.55 (0.87–1.68)	0.022*	1.36 (0.87–1.62)	0.074	1.18 (1.06–1.28)	0.036*	1.22 (0.87–1.47)	0.034	1.06 (0.70–1.22)	0.037*	1.38 (0.85–1.41)
Vit. C (mg)	0.009**	1.52 (0.77–1.83)	0.015	1.43 (1.19–1.50)	0.082*	1.40 (0.76–1.69)	0.049	1.33 (0.93–1.54)	0.06	1.03 (0.91–1.20)	0.025	1.11 (0.56–1.47)	0.023*	1.25 (0.77–1.36)
Vit. E (mg)	0.007	–	0.012	–	0.075	1.16 (0.36–1.23)	0.04	–	0.061	–	0.027	1.09 (0.76–1.51)	0.012	–
Vit. D (µg)	0.030**	1.56 (1.42–1.76)	0.019	1.03 (0.24–1.13)	0.044*	1.38 (0.44–1.56)	0.063	1.04 (1.0–1.36)	0.010**	1.43 (0.97–1.68)	0.093*	1.45 (1.20–1.78)	0.088*	1.57 (1.20–1.80)
Ca (mg)	0.010	–	0.01*	1.34 (0.86–1.54)	0.035*	1.42 (0.39–1.51)	0.14**	1.61 (0.94–1.89)	0.090	–	0.045	1.02 (0.16–1.39)	0.042**	1.68 (0.96–1.92)
P (mg)	0.086*	1.33 (0,69–1.43)	0.038	1.44 (0.73–1.64)	0.020	–	0.039*	1.44 (0.80–1.67)	0.020	–	0.076	1.18 (0.93–1.35)	0.070	–
Folate (µg)	0.032	1.08 (0.36–1.24)	0.035**	1.55 (0.98–1.93)	0.039*	1.49 (0.92–1.83)	0.031*	1.39 (1.29–1.43)	0.026	1.09 (0.67–1.25)	0.074	1.07 (0.64–1.24)	0.063	1.04 (0.80–1.20)
Vit. B12 (µg)	0.057*	1.26 (0.83–1.44)	0.028	1.25 (0.55–1.34)	0.046	1.07 (0.76–1.26)	0.005	–	0.000	–	0.071	1.05 (0.72–1.22)	0.032*	1.49 (0.94–1.76)
Niacin (mg)	0.011	–	0.030*	1.38 (0.69–1.48)	0.113*	1.57 (1.07–1.78)	0.016	–	0.058*	1.48 (1.08–1.86)	0.091	1.29 (1.03–1.43)	0.103**	1.57 (1.23–1.82)
Vit. B6 (mg)	−0.014	–	0.005	–	−0.095	0.17 (0.12–0.63)	0.021	1.033 (0.62–1.52)	0.036	1.11 (0.20–1.28)	0.079	1.13 (0.57–1.50)	0.093*	1.38 (0.82–1.44)
Iron mg	0.078*	1.36 (1.32–1.56)	0.024*	1.31 (0.78–1.53)	0.071	1.04 (0.57–1.34)	0.54**	1.83 (0.93–2.30)	0.031*	1.36 (0.95–1.56)	0.065*	1.46 (0.81–1.64)	0.087**	1.41 (0.69–1.85)
Na (mg)	0.055*	1.29 (0.88–1.38)	0.012	–	0.050	–	0.033*	1.37 (0.72–1.45)	0.038	1.14 (0.52–1.24)	0.027	1.22 (0.78–1.40)	0.004	–
K (mg))	0.081*	1.34 (0.67–1.47)	0.051**	1.46 (1.25–1.78)	0.018*	1.26 (1.12–1.46)	0.025	–	0.010	–	0.087**	1.63 (1.17–1.72)	0.028*	1.27 (0.63–1.43)
Zn (mg)	0.084*	1.24 (0.70–1.45)	0.048	1.07 (0.47–1.43)	0.062**	1.46 (0.90–2.06)	0.019*	1.42 (0.84–1.78)	0.094	1.32 (0.87–1.46)	0.001	–	0.056*	1.29 (1.17–1.35)
Cr (µg)	0.010	–	0.013*	1.31 (0.88–1.52)	0.078	–	0.029	1.15 (1.02–1.32)	0.026**	1.52 (0.98–1.98)	0.092*	1.57 (0.86–1.73)	0.097*	1.39 (0.64–1.54)
Mg (mg)	0.081**	1.53 (1.10–1.96)	0.075	–	0.097*	1.43 (1.21–1.76)	0.048*	1.38 (0.91–1.72)	0.084	–	0.048	1.04 (0.93–1.20)	0.016*	1.37 (0.73–1.46)

Notes: **P ≤ 0.01; *P ≤ 0.05.

Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.