The Impact of Disparities in Social Determinants of Health on Hospitalization Rates for Patients with COVID-19 in Michigan (USA)

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Patients Testing Positive for SARS-CoV2 Infection from February to December 2020 (N = 30,292) (p values Were Resulted Through a Chi-Square Test)

Demographic Characteristics	Total Patients	Admitted	Not Admitted	P-value
	N = 30,292	N = 10,303	N = 19,989
Age of Patient (Years) (n = 30,291)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	53.52 (20.11)	63.54 (17.77)	48.31 (19.15)	<0.0001
Body Mass Index (BMI) (n = 15,680)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	31.35 (8.49)	31.65 (8.65)	30.78 (7.68)	<0.0001
Unemployment Rate of ZIP Code (%) (n = 29,930)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	6.73% (4.43%)	7.43% (4.79%)	6.36% (4.19%)	<0.0001
Percent of ZIP Code Taking Public Transportation to Work (%) (n = 29,930)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	1.48% (2.43%)	1.80% (2.71%)	1.32% (2.26%)	<0.0001
Percent of ZIP Code Working in White Collar Profession (%) (n = 29,930)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	37.89% (14.32%)	35.70% (13.85%)	39.03% (14.43%)	<0.0001
Percent of ZIP Code Working in Service Profession (%) (n = 29,930)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	17.51% (5.50%)	18.40% (5.59%)	17.04% (5.40%)	<0.0001
Median Income of ZIP Code ($) (n = 29,929)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	$65,360.97 ($27,067.02)	$60,764.35 ($25,592.06)	$67,745.13 ($27,502.70)	<0.0001
Percent of ZIP Code on Food Stamps/SNAP (%) (n = 29,929)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	15.12% (12.71%)	17.28% (13.28%)	14.00% (12.25%)	<0.0001
Poverty Rate of ZIP Code (%) (n = 29,929)
Mean (Standard Deviation)	11.85% (10.39%)	13.39% (10.84%)	11.05% (10.06%)	<0.0001
Biological Sex of Patient (n = 30,292)
Female	16,454 (54.32%)	5184 (50.38%)	11,250 (56.32%)	<0.0001
Male	13,831 (45.66%)	5106 (49.62%)	8717 (43.64%)
Unknown	7 (0.02%)	0 (0.00%)	7 (0.04%)	N/A^1
Race of Patient (n = 30,292)
American Indian or Alaska Native	74 (0.24%)	33 (0.32%)	41 (0.21%)	<0.0001
Asian	599 (1.98%)	208 (2.02%)	390 (1.95%)
Black or African American	7072 (23.35%)	3308 (32.15%)	3758 (18.82%)
Native American or Pacific Islander	29 (0.10%)	5 (0.05%)	24 (0.12%)
Other	2434 (8.04%)	659 (6.40%)	1773 (8.88%)
White or Caucasian	17,416 (57.49%)	6071 (59.00%)	11,328 (56.73%)
Unknown	2668 (8.81%)	6 (0.06%)	2653 (13.29%)
Ethnicity of Patient (n = 30,292)
Arabic or Middle Eastern	3180 (10.50%)	1042 (10.13%)	2138 (10.71%)	<0.0001
Hispanic or Latino	882 (2.91%)	338 (3.28%)	543 (2.72%)
Not Hispanic or Latino	21,349 (70.48%)	8404 (81.67%)	12,923 (64.72%)
Other	1395 (4.61%)	406 (3.95%)	986 (4.94%)
Unknown	3486 (11.51%)	100 (0.97%)	3377 (16.91%)
Marital Status (n = 30,292)
Divorced	2247 (7.42%)	986 (9.58%)	1259 (6.31%)	<0.0001
Married	13,182 (43.52%)	4767 (46.33%)	8411 (42.12%)
Separated	245 (0.81%)	114 (1.11%)	131 (0.66%)
Single	9522 (31.43%)	2711 (26.35%)	6810 (34.11%)
Widowed	2608 (8.61%)	1565 (15.21%)	1025 (5.13%)
Unknown	2488 (8.21%)	147 (1.43%)	2331 (11.67%)
English Language Speaker (n = 30,292)
Yes	27,746 (91.60%)	9165 (89.07%)	18,548 (92.89%)	<0.0001
No	2546 (8.40%)	1125 (10.93%)	1419 (7.11%)
Primary Payor (n = 30,292)
Private Insurance	21,541 (71.11%)	5547 (53.91%)	15,977 (80.02%)	<0.0001
Uninsured	640 (2.11%)	122 (1.19%)	517 (2.59%)
Medicaid	821 (2.71%)	341 (3.31%)	480 (2.40%)
Medicare	7214 (23.81%)	4253 (41.33%)	2944 (14.74%)
Tricare/VA	76 (0.25%)	27 (0.26%)	49 (0.25%)
Has Primary Care Physician (PCP) (n = 30,292)
Yes	21,327 (70.40%)	7746 (75.28%)	13,560 (67.91%)	<0.0001
No	8965 (29.60%)	2544 (24.72%)	6407 (32.09%)

Note: ¹Unknown gender was not further analyzed due to no unknown gender patients being admitted.

Table 2 Multivariate Analysis of Patients Testing Positive for SARS-CoV2 Infection from February to December 2020 (N = 30,292)

	AOR (95% CI)	P-value
Age of Patient (Years)	1.03 (1.03, 1.03)	<0.0001
Percent of ZIP Code Working in White Collar Jobs	0.99 (0.99, 0.99)	0.0014
Median Income of ZIP Code ($1000 USD)	0.99 (0.99, 0.99)	0.0054
Biological Sex of Patient
Male	1.49 (1.40, 1.57)	<0.0001
Female	Reference Group
Race of Patient
American Indian or Alaska Native	2.12 (1.26, 3.57)	0.0045
Asian	1.28 (1.05, 1.54)	0.0127
Black or African American	1.83 (1.70, 1.97)	<0.0001
Native American or Pacific Islander	0.70 (0.26, 1.89)	0.4835
Other	0.79 (0.70, 0.88)	<0.0001
Unknown	0.04 (0.02, 0.09)	<0.0001
White or Caucasian	Reference Group
Ethnicity of Patient
Arabic or Middle Eastern	0.92 (0.82, 1.02)	0.1199
Hispanic or Latino	1.49 (1.27, 1.75)	<0.0001
Other	1.03 (0.89, 1.18)	0.7134
Unknown	0.30 (0.24, 0.38)	<0.0001
Not Hispanic or Latino	Reference Group
Marital Status
Divorced	0.98 (0.88, 1.08)	0.6851
Separated	1.14 (0.86, 1.51)	0.3499
Single	0.98 (0.91, 1.05)	0.5993
Unknown	0.92 (0.73, 1.14)	0.4340
Widowed	1.03 (0.93, 1.14)	0.6180
Married	Reference Group
English Speaker
No	1.53 (1.36, 1.71)	<0.0001
Yes	Reference Group
Employment Status
Disabled	2.23 (1.97, 2.51)	<0.0001
Homemaker	1.65 (1.22, 2.22)	0.0010
Not Employed	1.46 (1.35, 1.59)	<0.0001
Part Time	0.92 (0.80, 1.06)	0.2297
Retired	1.61 (1.46, 1.76)	< .0001
Self Employed	1.12 (0.92, 1.37)	0.2623
Student	0.38 (0.23, 0.62)	0.0001
Unknown	0.47 (0.41, 0.54)	<0.0001
Full Time	Reference Group
Insurance Status
Medicaid	1.49 (1.27, 1.74)	<0.0001
Medicare	1.41 (1.31, 1.53)	<0.0001
Tricare/VA	1.46 (0.84, 2.53)	0.1752
Uninsured	0.81 (0.65, 1.02)	0.0712
Private Insurance	Reference Group
Primary Care Physician (PCP)
No	1.20 (1.13, 1.28)	<0.0001
Yes	Reference Group