Modification of palm kernel oil esters nanoemulsions with hydrocolloid gum for enhanced topical delivery of ibuprofen

Figures & data

Table 1 Composition of the nanoemulsion formulation

Code	Ingredient (% w/w)
	PKOE	Tween 80	Ibuprofen	Water
T802	3.6	14.4	2	80

Note: Code T802 represents the surfactant Tween 80 with number 2 (20:80 of oil/ surfactant ratio).

Abbreviation: PKOE, palm kernel oil esters.

Table 2 Composition of the modified nanoemulsion formulations

Code	Ingredient (g)
	Nanoemulsions	GG	CG	XG	Water
M1	40	0.75	–	–	49.25
M2	40	–	0.75	–	49.25
M3	40	–	–	0.75	49.25

Abbreviations: GG, gellan gum; CG, carrageenan; XG, xanthan gum; M, modified nanoemulsion.

Figure 1 Ternary phase diagram of PKOE/Tween 80/water system at 25°C ± 1°C.

Abbreviations: L₁, isotropic liquid region; Lc, liquid crystalline region; M, multiphase region; PKOE, palm kernel oil esters.

Table 3 Physicochemical properties of the initial nanoemulsion formulation

	T802
Droplet size (nm)	16.52 ± 0.0816
Polydispersity index	0.0926 ± 0.0176
Zeta potential (mV)	−11.04 ± 0.5595
Viscosity (cP)	12
Appearance	Bluish transparent liquid

Abbreviation: T802, initial nanoemulsion.

Figure 2 Droplet size and polydispersity index for the initial nanoemulsion (T802) and the modified nanoemulsion.

Note: Mean ± SD, n = 3.

Abbreviations: Ref, reference; GG, gellan gum; CG, carrageenan; XG, xanthan gum; SD, standard deviation.

Figure 3 Zeta potential distributions for the nanoemulsion sample T802.

Figure 4 Zeta potential values for the initial nanoemulsion (T802) and the modified nanoemulsion.

Note: Mean ± SD, n = 3.

Abbreviations: Ref, reference; GG, gellan gum; CG, carrageenan; XG, xanthan gum; SD, standard deviation.

Figure 5 Viscosity versus shear rate for the initial and modified nanoemulsions.

Figure 6 The TEM images of (A) the initial (T802), and (B) the modified (M1) nanoemulsions.

Table 4 The permeation parameters of the initial and modified nanoemulsion

	Flux at 8 h (J, μg · cm^−2 · h^−1)	Permeated amount at 8 h (%)	Kp (10^−3, cm/h)	TL (h)
T802	25.25 ± 5.87	6.5	12.6	1.423
M1	49.32 ± 4.88	28.4	55.4	0.686

Note: Mean ± SD, n = 3.

Abbreviations: Kp, permeability coefficient; T_L, lag time; T802, initial nanoemulsion; M1, initial nanoemulsion modified with gellan gum; SD, standard deviation; h, hours.

Figure 7 The permeation profiles of ibuprofen through Wistar rat skin.

Note: Mean ± standard deviation, n = 3.