Prevalence and Associated Factors of Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy in Eastern Ethiopia

Figures & data

Figure 1 Flow diagram showing identification of study subjects, Eastern Ethiopia, 2018.

Table 1 Characteristics of Study Participants in Eastern Ethiopia, 2018 (n=3015)

Variable	Variable Category	Number	Percent
Residence	Harar	542	18.0
	Kersa	2473	82.0
Religion	Muslim	2666	88.4
	Orthodox	296	9.8
	Protestant	53	1.8
Age group (years)	<20	333	11.0
	20–34	2284	75.8
	≥35	398	13.2
Age at first marriage (years)	<18	1596	52.9
	≥18	1419	47.1
Marital duration (years)	≤1	303	10.1
	2–4	618	20.5
	5–10	1111	36.8
	>10	983	32.6
Education (women)	No education	1932	64.1
	Primary or secondary	927	30.8
	Tertiary	156	5.1
Education (partner)	No education	1382	45.8
	Primary or secondary	1388	46.0
	Tertiary	245	8.2
Women's household empowerment status	Low	1006	33.4
	Medium	1006	33.4
	High	1003	33.2
Drinking habit (women)	Yes, frequently	22	0.7
	Yes, occasionally	158	5.3
	Not at all	2831	94.0
Drinking habit (partner)	Yes, frequently	98	3.3
	Yes, occasionally	272	9.1
	Not at all	2547	85.1
	Do not know	77	2.5
Khat-chewing habit (partner)	Never/not habitually	464	15.4
	Always/habitually	2551	84.6
Living arrangement	Not with family	2192	72.7
	With family	823	27.3
Working status (women)	Housewife	2650	87.9
	Working	365	12.1
Working status (partner)	Working	2940	97.5
	Not working	75	2.5
Number of children under 5 at home	<3	2647	87.8
	≥3	368	12.2
ANC attendance	Not attended	1511	50.1
	Attended ≥1	1504	49.9
Partner's stance on ANC use	Discouraged	56	1.9
	No interest	1305	43.3
	Encouraged	1654	54.8
Number of living children	≤3	1867	61.9
	4–6	878	29.1
	≥7	270	9.0
Couple’s pregnancy intentions	Concordant	2649	87.9
	Discordant	366	12.1
Previous infant death	No	2475	82.1
	Yes	540	17.9

Abbreviation: ANC, antenatal care.

Table 2 Prevalence of Different Types of Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy, Eastern Ethiopia, 2018 (n=3015)

Violent Act/Item	Number	Prevalence, % (95% CI)
Physical (at least one of the six below)	361	11.9 (10.8, 13.2)
Being pushed	234	7.8 (6.8, 8.8)
Being slapped	184	6.1 (5.3, 7.0)
Being punched with fist	115	3.8 (3.2, 4.6)
Being kicked or dragged	23	0.8 (0.5, 1.1)
Being choked or burnt intentionally	11	0.4 (0.2, 0.7)
Being threatened or actually attacked with weapon/knife	17	0.6 (0.3, 0.9)
Psychological (at least one of the four below)	737	24.4 (22.9, 26.0)
Being insulted	700	23.2 (21.7, 24.8)
Being belittled/humiliated	294	9.8 (8.7, 10.9)
Being scared/intimidated on purpose	85	2.8 (2.3, 3.5)
Being threatened to hurt her or someone she cares about	30	1.0 (0.7, 1.4)
Sexual (at least one of the three below)	332	11.0 (9.9, 12.2)
Being physically forced to have sex	314	10.4 (9.3, 11.6)
Had sex when not wanting to because of fear	116	3.9 (3.2, 4.6)
Forced to do something sexual which is humiliating	35	1.2 (0.8, 1.6)
Any (overall) IPVP^†	918	30.5 (28.8, 32.1)
Overlapping Occurrences*
Physical and Psychological	281	9.3 (8.3, 10.4)
Physical and Sexual	138	4.6 (3.9, 5.4)
Psychological and Sexual	214	7.1 (6.2, 8.1)
Physical, Psychological and Sexual	121	4.0 (3.3, 4.8)

Notes: *Joint occurrences of physical, psychological and sexual violence during pregnancy. ^†At least one act of the 13 acts of violence comprising physical, sexual and psychological violence.

Table 3 Bivariate Associations Between Various Factors and Psychological Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy, Eastern Ethiopia (n=3015), 2018

Variable	Category	Psychological IPVP		CPR (95% CI)	P-value
		Yes, n (%)	No, n(%)
Residence	Harar	135(24.9)	407(75.1)	1.00
	Kersa	602(24.3)	1871(75.7)	0.98(0.83,1.15)	0.781
Age group(years)	<20	46(13.8)	287(86.2)	1.00
	20-34	581(25.4)	1703(74.6)	1.84(1.39,2.43)	0.000
	≥ 35	110(27.6)	288(72.4)	2.00(1.46,2.73)	0.000
Age at first marriage (years)	<18	404(25.3)	1192(74.7)	1.00
	≥18	333(23.5)	1086(76.5)	0.9(0.81,1.05)	0.250
Marital duration (years)	≤ 1	57(18.8)	246(81.2)	1.00
	2-4	139(22.5)	479(77.5)	1.2(0.90,1.57)	0.204
	5-10	246(22.1)	865(77.9)	1.1(0.91,1.52)	0.217
	>10	295(30.0)	688(70.0)	1.6(1.23,2.05)	0.000
Education (women)	No formal education	519(26.8)	1413(73.2)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	194(20.9)	733(79.1)	0.78(0.67,0.90)	0.000
	Tertiary	24(15.4)	132(84.6)	0.57(0.39,0.83)	0.004
Education (partner)	No formal education	375(27.1)	1007(72.9)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	316(22.8)	1072(77.2)	0.84(0.74,0.96)	0.008
	Tertiary	46(18.8)	199(81.2)	0.69(0.53,0.91)	0.009
Household empowerment status	Low	202(20.1)	804(79.9)	1.00
	Medium	316(31.4)	690(68.6)	1.56(1.34,1.82)	0.000
	High	219(21.8)	784(78.2)	1.09(0.92,1.29)	0.334
Drinking habit (women)	Yes frequently	7(31.8)	15(68.2)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	51(32.3)	107(67.7)	1.01(0.53,1.95)	0.966
	Not at all	677(23.9)	2154(76.1)	0.75(0.41,1.39)	0.363
Drinking habit (partner)	Yes frequently	27(27.6)	71(72.4)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	68(25.0)	204(75.0)	0.91(0.62,1.33)	0.618
	Not at all	600(23.6)	1947(76.4)	0.85(0.62,1.19)	0.350
Khat-chewing habit (partner)	Never/occasional	77(16.6)	387(83.4)	1.00
	Frequently	660(25.9)	1891(74.1)	1.56(1.26,1.93)	0.000
Working status (women)	Housewife	598(22.6)	2052(77.4)	1.00
	Working	139(38.1)	226(61.9)	1.7(1.45,1.95)	0.000
Working status (partner)	Working	716(24.4)	2224(75.6)	1.00
	Non-working	21(28.0)	54(72.0)	1.15(0.80,1.66)	0.460
Living arrangement	Not with family	538(24.5)	1654(75.5)	1.00
	With family	199(24.2)	624(75.8)	0.99(0.86,1.13)	0.836
Number of children under 5	<3	646(24.4)	2001(75.6)	1.00
	≥3	91(24.7)	277(75.3)	1.1(0.84,1.23)	0.890
ANC attendance	Not attend	359(23.8)	1152(76.2)	1.00
	Attended ≥1	378(25.1)	1126(74.9)	1.1(093,1.19)	0.380
Partner's stance on ANC use	Discourage	15(26.8)	41(73.2)	1.00
	No interest	385(29.5)	920(70.5)	1.10(0.71,1.71)	0.668
	Encourage	337(20.4)	1317(79.6)	0.76(0.49,1.18)	0.227
Number of living children	≤3	404(21.6)	1463(78.4)	1.00
	4-6	250(28.5)	628(71.5)	1.32(1.15,1.51)	0.000
	≥7	83(30.7)	187(69.3)	1.42(1.16,1.73)	0.000
Couple's pregnancy intentions	Concordant	622(23.5)	2027(76.5)	1.00
	Discordant	115(31.4)	251(68.6)	1.34(1.13,1.58)	0.000
Previous infant loss	No	6 17(24.9)	1858(75.1)	1.00
	Yes	120(22.2)	420(77.8)	0.9(0.75,1.05)	0.190

Abbreviations: IPVP, intimate partner violence during pregnancy; CPR, crude prevalence ratio; ANC, antenatal care.

Table 4 Bivariate Associations Between Various Factors and Physical Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy, Eastern Ethiopia (n=3015), 2018

Variable	Category	Physical IPVP		CPR (95% CI)	P-value
		Yes, n(%)	No, n(%)
Residence	Harar	50(9.2)	492(90.8)	1.00
	Kersa	311(12.6)	2162(87.4)	1.36(1.03,1.81)	0.032
Age group(years)	<20	21(6.3)	312(93.7)	1.00
	20-34	286(12.5)	1998(87.5)	1.98(1.29,3.05)	0.002
	≥ 35	54(13.6)	344(86.4)	2.15(1.33,3.49)	0.002
Age at first marriage (years)	<18	209(13.1)	1387(86.9)	1.00
	≥18	152(10.7)	1267(89.3)	0.8(0.67,0.99)	0.045
Marital duration (years)	≤ 1	23(7.6)	280(92.4)	1.00
	2-4	69(11.2)	549(88.8)	1.5(0.94,2.31)	0.094
	5-10	123(11.1)	988(88.9)	1.4(0.95,2.23)	0.083
	>10	146(14.9)	837(85.1)	1.9(1.28,2.97)	0.002
Education (women)	No formal education	283(14.7)	1649(85.3)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	76(8.2)	851(91.8)	0.56(0.44,0.71)	0.000
	Tertiary	2(1.3)	154(98.7)	0.09(0.02,0.35)	0.001
Education (partner)	No formal education	204(14.8)	1178(85.2)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	142(10.2)	1246(89.8)	0.69(0.57,0.85)	0.000
	Tertiary	15(6.1)	230(93.9)	0.41(0.25,0.69)	0.001
Household empowerment status	Low	107(10.6)	899(89.4)	1.00
	Medium	166(16.5)	840(83.5)	1.55(1.23,1.95)	0.000
	High	88(8.8)	915(91.2)	0.82(0.63,1.08)	0.159
Drinking habit (women)	Yes frequently	4(18.2)	18(81.8)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	22(13.9)	136(86.1)	0.77(0.29,2.02)	0.589
	Not at all	335(11.8)	2496(88.2)	0.65(0.27,1.59)	0.345
Drinking habit (partner)	Yes frequently	9(9.2)	89(90.8)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	30(11.0)	242(89.0)	1.20(0.59,2.44)	0.612
	Not at all	287(11.3)	2260(88.7)	1.23(0.65,2.31)	0.526
Khat-chewing habit (partner)	Never/occasional	22(4.7)	442(95.3)	1.00
	Frequently	339(13.3)	2212(86.7)	2.80(1.84,4.26)	0.000
Working status (women)	Housewife	292(11.0)	2358(89.0)	1.00
	Working	69(18.9)	296(81.1)	1.7(1.35,2.18)	0.000
Working status (partner)	Working	355(12.1)	2585(87.9)	1.00
	Non-working	6(8.0)	69(92.0)	0.66(0.31,1.44)	0.297
Living arrangement	Not with family	259(11.8)	1933(88.2)	1.00
	With family	102(12.4)	721(87.6)	1.05(0.85,1.30)	0.663
Number of children under 5	<3	308(11.6)	2339(88.4)	1.00
	≥3	53(14.4)	315(85.6)	1.2(094,1.62)	0.122
ANC attendance	Not attend	179(11.9)	1332(88.1)	1.00
	Attended ≥1	182(12.1)	1322(87.9)	1.1(0.84,1.24)	0.830
Partner's stance on ANC use	Discourage	10(17.9)	46(82.1)	1.00
	No interest	182(13.9)	1123(86.1)	0.78(0.44,1.39)	0.402
	Encourage	169(10.2)	1485(89.8)	0.57(0.32,1.02)	0.059
Number of living children	≤3	191(10.2)	1676(89.8)	1.00
	4-6	126(14.4)	752(85.6)	1.40(1.14,1.73)	0.002
	≥7	44(16.3)	226(83.7)	1.59(1.18,2.15)	0.003
Couple's pregnancy intentions	Concordant	301(11.4)	2348(88.6)	1.00
	Discordant	60(16.4)	306(83.6)	1.44(1.11,1.86)	0.005
Previous infant loss	No	301(12.2)	2174(87.8)	1.00
	Yes	60(11.1)	480(88.9)	0.9(0.70,1.19)	0.498

Abbreviations: IPVP, intimate partner violence during pregnancy; CPR, crude prevalence ratio; ANC, antenatal care.

Table 5 Bivariate Associations Between Various Factors and Sexual Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy, Eastern Ethiopia (n=3015), 2018

Variable	Category	Sexual IPVP		CPR (95% CI)	P-value
		Yes, n (%)	No, n(%)
Residence	Harar	84(15.5)	458(84.5)	1.00
	Kersa	248(10.0)	2225(90.0)	0.65(0.51,0.81)	0.000
Age group(years)	<20	30(9.0)	303(91.0)	1.00
	20-34	251(10.9)	2033(89.1)	1.22(0.85,1.75)	0.280
	≥ 35	51(12.8)	347(87.2)	1.42(0.93,2.18)	0.106
Age at first marriage (years)	<18	198(12.4)	1398(87.6)	1.00
	≥18	134(9.4)	1285(90.6)	0.80(0.62,0.94)	0.010
Marital duration (years)	≤ 1	20(6.6)	283(93.4)	1.00
	2-4	83(13.4)	535(86.6)	2.1(1.27,3.25)	0.003
	5-10	96(8.6)	1015(91.4)	1.3(0.82,2.08)	0.256
	>10	133(13.5)	850(86.5)	2.1(1.30,3.22)	0.002
Education (women)	No formal education	244(12.6)	1688(87.4)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	76(8.2)	851(91.8)	0.65(0.51,0.83)	0.001
	Tertiary	12(7.7)	144(92.3)	0.61(0.35,1.06)	0.081
Education (partner)	No formal education	188(13.6)	1194(86.4)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	117(8.4)	1271(91.6)	0.62(0.49,0.77)	0.000
	Tertiary	27(11.0)	218(89.0)	0.81(0.55,1.18)	0.277
Household empowerment status	Low	69(6.9)	937(93.1)	1.00
	Medium	183(18.2)	823(81.8)	2.65(2.04,3.45)	0.000
	High	80(7.9)	923(92.1)	1.16(0.85,1.59)	0.340
Drinking habit (women)	Yes frequently	5(22.7)	17(77.3)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	36(22.8)	122(77.2)	1.01(0.44,2.28)	0.995
	Not at all	291(10.3)	2540(89.7)	0.45(0.21,0.98)	0.046
Drinking habit (partner)	Yes frequently	10(10.2)	88(89.8)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	35(12.9)	237(87.1)	1.26(0.65,2.45)	0.493
	Not at all	286(11.2)	2261(88.8)	1.10(0.61,2.99)	0.754
Khat-chewing habit (partner)	Never/occasional	53(11.4)	411(88.6)	1.00
	Frequently	279(10.9)	2272(89.1)	0.96(0.73,1.26)	0.758
Working status (women)	Housewife	208(7.9)	2442(92.1)	1.00
	Working	124(34.0)	241(66.0)	4.3(3.57,5.25)	0.000
Working status (partner)	Working	323(10.9)	2617(89.1)	1.00
	Non-working	9(12.0)	66(88.0)	1.09(0.59,2.03)	0.781
Living arrangement	Not with family	196(8.9)	1996(91.1)	1.00
	With family	136(16.5)	687(83.5)	1.85(1.51,2.27)	0.000
Number of children under 5	<3	295(11.1)	2352(88.9)	1.00
	≥3	37(10.0)	331(90.0)	0.9(0.65,1.25)	0.533
ANC attendance	Not attend	116(7.7)	1395(92.3)	1.00
	Attended ≥1	216(14.4)	1288(85.6)	1.8(1.51,2.32)	0.000
Partner's stance on ANC use	Discourage	1(1.8)	55(98.2)	1.00
	No interest	159(12.2)	1146(87.8)	6.8(0.97,47.9)	0.053
	Encourage	172(10.4)	1482(89.6)	5.8(0.83,40.8)	0.076
Number of living children	≤3	205(10.9)	1662(89.1)	1.00
	4-6	91(10.4)	787(89.6)	0.94(0.75,1.19)	0.628
	≥7	36(13.3)	234(86.7)	1.21(0.87,1.69)	0.249
Couple's pregnancy intentions	Concordant	305(11.5)	2344(88.5)	1.00
	Discordant	27(7.4)	339(92.6)	0.64(0.44,0.94)	0.021
Previous infant loss	No	288(11.6)	2187(88.4)	1.00
	Yes	44(8.2)	496(91.8)	0.7(0.52,0.95)	0.021

Abbreviations: IPVP, intimate partner violence during pregnancy; CPR, crude prevalence ratio; ANC, antenatal care.

Table 6 Bivariate Associations Between Various Factors and Overall Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy, Eastern Ethiopia (n=3015), 2018

Variable	Category	Overall IPVP		CPR (95% CI)	P-value
		Yes, n (%)	No, n(%)
Residence	Harar	176(32.5)	366(67.5)	1.00
	Kersa	742(30.0)	1731(70.0)	0.92(0.81,1.06)	0.253
Age group(years)	<20	72(21.6)	261(78.4)	1.00
	20-34	718(31.4)	1566(68.6)	1.45(1.17,1.80)	0.001
	≥ 35	128(32.2)	270(67.8)	1.49(1.16,1.91)	0.002
Age at first marriage (years)	<18	517(32.4)	1079(67.6)	1.00
	≥18	401(28.3)	1018(71.7)	0.9(0.78,0.97)	0.014
Marital duration (years)	≤ 1	75(24.8)	228(75.2)	1.00
	2-4	188(30.4)	430(69.6)	1.2(0.98,1.55)	0.078
	5-10	310(27.9)	801(72.1)	1.1(0.91,1.40)	0.281
	>10	345(35.1)	638(64.9)	1.4(1.15,1.76)	0.001
Education (women)	No formal education	644(33.3)	1288(66.7)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	244(26.3)	683(73.7)	0.79(0.69,0.89)	0.000
	Tertiary	30(19.2)	126(80.8)	0.58(0.42,0.80)	0.001
Education (partner)	No formal education	457(33.1)	925(66.9)	1.00
	Primary/secondary	397(28.6)	991(71.4)	0.86(0.77,0.97)	0.011
	Tertiary	64(26.1)	181(73.9)	0.79(0.63,0.99)	0.039
Household empowerment status	Low	263(26.1)	743(73.9)	1.00
	Medium	382(37.9)	624(62.1)	1.45(1.27,1.66)	0.000
	High	273(27.2)	730(72.8)	1.04(0.90,1.20)	0.586
Drinking habit (women)	Yes frequently	9(40.9)	13(59.1)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	70(44.3)	88(55.7)	1.08(0.64,1.84)	0.769
	Not at all	837(29.6)	1994(70.4)	0.72(0.44,1.20)	0.208
Drinking habit (partner)	Yes frequently	32(32.7)	66(67.3)	1.00
	Yes occasionally	89(32.7)	183(67.3)	1.01(0.72,1.40)	0.990
	Not at all	746(29.3)	1801(70.7)	0.90(0.67,1.20)	0.464
Khat-chewing habit (partner)	Never/occasional	110(23.7)	354(76.3)	1.00
	Frequently	808(31.7)	1743(68.3)	1.34(1.12,1.58)	0.001
Working status (women)	Housewife	734(27.7)	1916(72.3)	1.00
	Working	184(50.4)	181(49.6)	1.8(1.62,2.05)	0.000
Working status (partner)	Working	891(30.3)	2049(69.7)	1.00
	Non-working	27(36.0)	48(64.0)	1.19(0.87,1.62)	0.271
Living arrangement	Not with family	658(30.0)	1534(70.0)	1.00
	With family	260(31.6)	563(68.4)	1.05(0.93,1.19)	0.401
Number of children under 5	<3	806(30.5)	1841(69.5)	1.00
	≥3	112(30.4)	256(69.6)	0.9(0.85,1.18)	0.995
ANC attendance	Not attend	416(27.5)	1095(72.5)	1.00
	Attended ≥1	502(33.4)	1002(66.6)	1.2(1.08,1.35)	0.001
Partner's stance on ANC use	Discourage	18(32.1)	38(67.9)	1.00
	No interest	452(34.6)	853(65.4)	1.1(0.78,1.59)	0.706
	Encourage	448(27.1)	1206(72.9)	0.8(0.57,1.24)	0.388
Number of living children	≤3	538(28.8)	1329(71.2)	1.00
	4-6	287(32.7)	591(67.3)	1.13(1.01,1.28)	0.037
	≥7	93(34.4)	177(65.6)	1.19(1.01,1.43)	0.051
Couple's pregnancy intentions	Concordant	781(29.5)	1868(70.5)	1.00
	Discordant	137(37.4)	229(62.6)	1.27(1.09,1.47)	0.001
Previous infant loss	No	776(31.4)	1699(68.6)	1.00
	Yes	142(26.3)	398(73.7)	0.80(0.72,0.98)	0.024

Abbreviations: IPVP, intimate partner violence during pregnancy; CPR, crude prevalence ratio; ANC, antenatal care.

Table 7 Adjusted Prevalence Ratio of Factors Associated with Different Forms of Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy, Eastern Ethiopia, 2018

Variable	Category	APR (95% CI)
		Psychological IPVP	Physical IPVP	Sexual IPVP	Overall IPVP
Residence	Harar (urban)	1	1	1	1
	Kersa (rural)	0.68 (0.53, 0.87)*	0.81 (0.54, 1.22)	0.41 (0.27, 0.60)*	0.85 (0.87, 1.03)
Age group (years)	<20	1	1	1	1
	20–34	1.83 (1.34, 2.49)*	2.00 (1.25, 3.18)*	1.08 (0.75, 1.56)	1.56 (1.23, 1.98)*
	≥35	1.60 (1.10, 2.33)*	1.60 (0.89, 2.86)	0.90 (0.55, 1.46)	1.37 (1.02, 1.84)
Age at first marriage (years)	<18	1	1	1	1
	≥18	0.99 (0.86, 1.13)	1.05 (0.85, 1.29)	0.98 (0.77, 1.23)	0.94 (0.84, 1.05)
Education (women)	No formal education	1	1	1	1
	Primary/secondary	0.83 (0.70, 0.99)*	0.55 (0.41, 0.74)*	0.46 (0.34, 0.64)*	0.77 (0.66, 0.89)*
	Tertiary	0.49 (0.31, 0.78)*	0.05 (0.01, 0.23)*	0.20 (0.09, 0.45)*	0.36 (0.24, 0.53)*
Education (partner)	No formal	1	1	1	1
	Primary/secondary	0.98 (0.84, 1.13)	0.96 (0.76, 1.20)	0.74 (0.58, 0.96)*	0.92 (0.82, 1.03)
	Tertiary	0.86 (0.61, 1.19)	1.13 (0.64, 1.98)	0.94 (0.53, 1.68)	0.98 (0.75, 1.28)
Marital duration (years)	≤1	1	1	1	1
	2–4	0.93 (0.71, 1.23)	0.99 (0.63, 1.56)	1.59 (0.98, 2.56)	1.02 (0.81, 1.28)
	5–10	0.76 (0.57, 1.01)	0.77 (0.48, 1.21)	1.10 (0.67, 1.80)	0.78 (0.62, 1.00)
	>10	0.97 (0.71, 1.31)	0.99 (0.60, 1.63)	1.55 (0.92, 2.61)	0.92 (0.72, 1.19)
Household empowerment status	Low	1	1	1	1
	Medium	1.41 (1.20, 1.65)*	1.40 (1.10, 1.76)*	1.80 (1.39, 2.35)*	1.29 (1.13, 1.47)*
	High	0.99 (0.84, 1.19)	0.85 (0.65, 1.11)	0.95 (0.68, 1.32)	0.95 (0.82, 1.10)
Drinking habit (women)	Yes, frequently	1	1	1	1
	Yes, occasionally	0.77 (0.41, 1.43)	1.15 (0.47, 2.83)	0.66 (0.28, 1.56)	0.89 (0.55, 1.44)
	Not at all	0.53 (0.29, 0.99)*	0.61 (0.29, 1.32)	0.25 (0.12, 0.57)*	0.55 (0.35, 0.87)*
Drinking habit (partner)	Yes, frequently	1	1	1	1
	Yes, occasionally	0.95 (0.65, 1.40)	1.54 (0.75, 3.16)	0.68 (0.33, 1.38)	0.90 (0.65, 1.25)
	Not at all	0.75 (0.55, 1.03)	0.98 (0.53, 1.82)	1.02 (0.55, 1.92)	0.77 (0.58, 1.01)
Working status (women)	Housewife	1	1	1	1
	Working	1.90 (1.58, 2.28)*	2.54 (1.89, 3.41)*	3.37 (2.54, 4.47)*	2.13 (1.83, 2.48)*
Working status (partner)	Working	1	1	1	1
	Not working	0.80 (0.56, 1.14)	0.47 (0.22, 1.02)	0.46 (0.22, 0.97)*	0.65 (0.49, 0.86)*
Khat-chewing habit (partner)	Never/not habitually	1	1	1	1
	Always/habitually	2.05 (1.59, 2.67)*	3.15 (1.97, 5.03)*	1.47 (0.98, 2.18)	1.72 (1.41, 2.11)*
Living arrangement	Not with family/parent	1	1	1	1
	With family/parents	0.81 (0.69, 0.94)*	0.73 (0.58, 0.94)*	0.93 (0.74, 1.17)	0.87 (0.77, 0.98)*
Number of children under 5	<3	1	1	1	1
	≥3	0.90 (0.74, 1.10)	1.09 (0.82, 1.44)	1.15 (0.84, 1.56)	0.98 (0.83, 1.15)
ANC attendance	Not attended	1	1	1	1
	Attended ≥1	1.12 (0.95, 1.31)	1.15 (0.90, 1.46)	1.22 (0.94, 1.57)	1.25 (1.09, 1.42)*
Partner's stance on ANC use	Discouraged	1	1	1	1
	No interest	1.13 (0.76, 1.66)	0.52 (0.29, 0.92)*	4.90 (0.66, 36.4)	0.89 (0.61, 1.30)
	Encouraged	0.80 (0.55, 1.16)	0.44 (0.25, 0.78)*	4.34 (0.58, 32.2)	0.68 (0.47, 1.00)
Number of living children	≤3	1	1	1	1
	4–6	1.12 (0.93, 1.34)	1.05 (0.80, 1.39)	0.77 (0.58, 1.03)	1.04 (0.90, 1.20)
	≥7	1.19 (0.89, 1.57)	1.10 (0.73, 1.77)	0.96 (0.64, 1.44)	1.05 (0.85, 1.29)
Couple’s pregnancy intentions	Concordant	1	1	1	1
	Discordant	1.19 (1.01, 1.40)*	1.29 (1.01, 1.66)*	0.71 (0.49, 1.04)	1.19 (1.03, 1.36)*
Previous infant loss	No	1	1	1	1
	Yes	0.82 (0.68, 0.98)*	0.79 (0.60, 1.03)	0.67 (0.51, 0.89)*	0.82 (0.71, 0.96)*

Note: *Significant at P<0.05.

Abbreviations: APR, adjusted prevalence ratio; IPVP, intimate partner violence during pregnancy; ANC, antenatal care.