Prevalence and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Eight or More Antenatal Care Contacts in Ghana: Findings from 2019 Population-Based Data

Figures & data

Table 1 Distribution of Eight or More Antenatal Care Contacts Across Socioeconomic Status and by Women’s Characteristics

Variable	n (%)	Eight or More ANC Contacts, %	Eight or More Antenatal Care Contacts
			Household Wealth Quintile					Mothers’ Educational Attainment
			Lowest (Poorest)	Second Level	Middle	Fourth Level	Highest (Richest)	No Education	Primary	Secondary or Higher
Age
15–24	435 (31.0)	33.8	34.9	27.9	35.6	31.5	51.7	26.3	33.0	35.6
25–34	670 (47.7)	40.0	28.8	38.5	34.6	47.2	62.6	30.3	35.5	46.1
35+	299 (21.3)	45.5	42.7	44.8	40.0	45.5	58.5	40.2	50.0	48.3
Residential status
Urban	551 (39.3)	43.4	32.7	43.6	40.7	48.1	64.3	29.6	42.6	46.6
Rural	853 (60.7)	36.6	34.8	31.2	32.9	38.4	56.0	34.1	35.3	38.8
Religion
Christianity	1019 (72.6)	41.5	37.0	39.9	34.8	44.1	56.6	37.4	40.6	42.9
Islam	329 (23.4)	34.7	30.0	31.6	38.2	32.1	87.5	30.0	30.9	44.2
Traditional/no religion	56 (4.0)	25.0	25.9	8.3	40.0	28.6	–	24.1	33.3	20.0
Timing to antenatal care booking
Late (after 1st trimester)	457 (33.5)	19.7	15.0	20.6	19.1	23.1	31.3	15.8	13.0	24.1
Early (within 1st trimester)	905 (66.5)	50.4	47.7	43.9	45.9	54.1	67.2	46.0	50.3	52.2
Health insurance coverage
Not covered	489 (37.6)	39.3	33.1	44.1	31.6	40.2	58.5	35.6	36.4	42.2
Covered	811 (62.4)	40.7	36.7	34.4	39.6	41.5	61.4	32.8	43.1	42.9
Household headship
Male	1010 (71.9)	39.1	35.1	34.0	35.8	44.5	59.6	32.1	38.3	43.4
Female	394 (28.1)	39.6	31.0	43.1	35.7	37.8	59.7	37.3	35.4	41.1
Preceding birth interval
First born	708 (50.4)	41.5	35.6	39.3	37.7	43.8	59.8	39.3	37.8	43.2
<2 years	116 (8.3)	28.5	30.0	36.0	14.3	22.2	46.2	30.8	29.0	27.1
2–3 years	474 (33.8)	38.8	33.0	33.3	34.9	47.9	66.0	28.3	38.7	47.1
4+ years	106 (7.6)	37.7	34.4	29.2	47.6	40.0	44.4	34.5	42.9	36.7
Parity
1–2	684 (48.7)	41.1	36.6	33.6	40.5	42.3	62.1	27.8	38.1	43.7
3–4	432 (30.8)	36.1	30.2	34.9	27.6	40.3	56.1	32.2	34.3	39.3
5+	288 (20.5)	39.6	33.9	43.8	35.9	46.3	58.8	36.3	41.8	44.4
Region
Western	134 (9.5)	61.2	55.6	73.1	52.2	58.3	68.4	55.6	62.5	62.0
Central	139 (9.9)	28.8	15.8	44.4	22.6	21.4	45.0	57.1	37.0	24.8
Greater Accra	118 (8.4)	56.8	36.4	50.0	45.8	59.0	70.6	33.3	35.0	63.0
Volta	121 (8.6)	23.1	8.3	20.7	15.6	26.1	69.2	10.0	24.3	26.6
Eastern	107 (7.6)	35.5	11.8	29.4	31.3	46.2	45.2	31.3	33.3	37.0
Ashanti	141 (10.0)	44.7	23.8	33.3	60.6	43.2	51.7	46.7	51.6	42.1
Brong Ahafo	130 (9.3)	42.3	45.2	35.1	35.7	40.0	87.5	50.0	34.2	44.8
Northern	213 (15.2)	24.4	23.8	25.3	25.8	16.7	–	24.2	13.9	32.7
Upper East	147 (10.5)	64.6	62.9	84.0	50.0	50.0	66.7	61.4	74.3	61.8
Upper West	154 (11.0)	20.1	20.3	13.0	25.0	22.2	75.0	20.0	19.4	20.7
Ethnicity
Akan	469 (33.4)	45.0	33.3	50.0	41.6	44.3	53.6	60.7	50.8	42.9
Ga/Dangme	67 (4.8)	40.3	30.0	10.0	35.7	38.5	65.0	0.0	26.3	51.2
Ewe	180 (12.8)	32.2	24.2	34.2	16.3	41.5	52.0	23.5	32.1	33.6
Guan	32 (2.3)	46.9	33.3	58.3	60.0	20.0	50.0	50.0	36.4	54.6
Mole-Dagbani	454 (32.3)	35.2	36.2	27.6	36.5	36.7	75.0	30.2	37.5	40.5
Grusi	60 (4.3)	60.0	68.2	53.3	50.0	44.4	100.0	46.7	62.5	64.9
Gurma	82 (5.8)	19.5	10.4	25.0	18.2	75.0	66.7	20.0	17.9	21.4
Mande	16 (1.1)	56.3	50.0	40.0	75.0	0.0	100.0	25.0	85.7	40.0
Other	44 (3.1)	43.2	45.0	33.3	33.3	33.3	100.0	53.3	16.7	52.9
Total estimates	1404	41.9	34.0	36.1	35.8	42.4	59.6	33.0	37.7	42.6

Figure 1 Lorenz curve for eight or more ANC contacts by household wealth.

Figure 2 Lorenz curve for eight or more ANC contacts by women’s education.

Table 2 Household Wealth and Educational Attainment Inequalities in Early Initiation of Breastfeeding

Variable	Household Wealth Quintile		Mothers’ Education
	Concentration Index (SE)	P	Concentration Index (SE)	P
Age		0.016*		0.370
15–24	0.024 (0.037)		0.040 (0.033)
25–34	0.138 (0.026)*		0.089 (0.024)*
35+	0.044 (0.036)		0.043 (0.034)
Residential status		0.220		0.461
Urban	0.114 (0.027)*		0.058 (0.023)*
Rural	0.067 (0.025)*		0.031 (0.024)
Religion		0.662		0.189
Christianity	0.071 (0.021)*		0.023 (0.018)
Islam	0.108 (0.041)*		0.091 (0.041)*
Traditional/no religion	0.042 (0.127)		−0.013 (0.124)
Timing to antenatal care booking		0.281		0.039*
Late (after 1st trimester)	0.111 (0.053)*		0.112 (0.049)*
Early (within 1st trimester)	0.062 (0.018)*		0.024 (0.017)
Health insurance coverage		0.806		0.950
Not covered	0.075 (0.031)*		0.040 (0.029)
Covered	0.084 (0.024)*		0.043 (0.022)
Household headship		0.782		0.337
Male	0.085 (0.022)*		0.064 (0.021)*
Female	0.097 (0.035)*		0.025 (0.029)
Preceding birth interval		0.410		0.046*
First born	0.084 (0.025)*		0.025 (0.022)
<2 years	−0.003 (0.084)		−0.027 (0.078)
2–3 years	0.116 (0.032)*		0.112 (0.031)*
4+ years	0.062 (0.070)		0.004 (0.067)
Parity		0.909		0.990
1–2	0.091 (0.025)*		0.051 (0.021)*
3–4	0.101 (0.036)*		0.046 (0.034)
5+	0.077 (0.040)		0.046 (0.039)
Region		0.034*		0.611
Western	0.003 (0.039)		0.011 (0.033)
Central	0.040 (0.075)		−0.112 (0.057)
Greater Accra	0.106 (0.044)*		0.086 (0.033)*
Volta	0.304 (0.089)*		0.110 (0.087)
Eastern	0.176 (0.072)*		0.030 (0.062)
Ashanti	0.089 (0.053)		−0.036 (0.045)
Brong Ahafo	0.031 (0.057)		0.010 (0.054)
Northern	0.009 (0.064)		0.035 (0.061)
Upper East	0.004 (0.029)		−0.006 (0.033)
Upper West	0.057 (0.085)		0.008 (0.087)
Ethnicity		0.011*		0.325
Akan	0.047 (0.029)		−0.040 (0.020)*
Ga/Dangme	0.226 (0.080)*		0.187 (0.070)*
Ewe	0.134 (0.061)*		0.034 (0.054)
Guan	−0.013 (0.108)		0.025 (0.106)
Mole-Dagbani	0.019 (0.034)		0.070 (0.034)*
Grusi	−0.029 (0.059)		0.059 (0.053)
Gurma	0.334 (0.110)*		−0.002 (0.120)
Mande	0.111 (0.128)		0.028 (0.127)
Other	0.031 (0.096)		0.008 (0.096)
Total estimates	0.089 (0.019)*		0.053 (0.017)*

Notes: *Significant at p<0.05. p= comparing concentration indices across the levels of a variable.

Abbreviation: SE, standard error.