Traditional Medicinal Plants Conferring Protection Against Ovalbumin-Induced Asthma in Experimental Animals: A Review

Figures & data

Figure 1 Pathophysiology of OVA-induced asthma. OVA-induces different types of allergic asthma, including eosinophilic, neutrophilic, and mixed-granulocytic asthma. Although different sensitisation and challenge protocols has been used, the underlying mechanism is nearly similar. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the first innate immune cells encounters the allergen after crossing the respiratory epithelium. DCs process and present the antigen to the CD4⁺ T cells, which subsequently polarized into Th2 cells via Th2 inducing factor (IL-4). Th2 cells secrete copious amounts of cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13), which later activate the naïve B cells to antigen-specific B cells (class switching). Further, antigen-specific B cells secret IgE, which sequentially recognized by the FcεRI on the mast cells and basophils. This process is called sensitisation. Upon re-exposure, allergen experienced leukocytes accelerate the priming process and activate mast cells and basophils. In addition, sensitized mast cells and basophils directly recognize the IgE antigen conjugates and undergo degranulation, which releases vasoactive amines (histamine), lipid mediators (prostaglandin, leukotrienes), chemokines, and other cytokines. As a net effect, the former mediators recruit the eosinophils and neutrophils, induce the mast cell differentiation, hypersecretion of mucus, Th1 cell activation, lung epithelial cells apoptosis, and others.¹³⁷ Of note, few protocols use LPS or Alum, which accelerate the process, to induce a specific type of allergic condition. The figure was created with the support of https://biorender.com under the paid subscription.

Table 1 Information About TMPs Conferring Protection Against OVA-Induced Asthma

Medicinal Plant	Family	Distribution and Availability	Parts Used	Solvent	Chemical Constituents	Ethnomedical and Traditional Uses	References
S. striata	Scrophulariaceae	It is a perennial herbaceous plant found mainly in western Iran.	Aerial parts	80% Ethanol	Phenylpropanoids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds and flavonoids.	Treatment for gastritis, conjunctivitis, hemorrhoids, otitis, infectious wounds, common cold and burns.	Azadmehr et al;^Citation34 Tamri^Citation64
L. dentata	Lamiaceae	It is a powerful aromatic and medicinal herb found mainly in Atlantic Islands and the Arabian Peninsula.	Flowers and leaves	Ethanol	Linalool, linalyl acetate, mono and sesquiterpenes, luteolin, ursolic acid and coumarins.	Treatment for diabetes, cold and renal colic.	Almohawes and Alruhaimi^Citation35
P. weinmannifolia	Anacardiaceae	It is a shrub widely found in China.	Root	50% Ethanol	Not identified	Treating enteritis, dysentery, headache, influenza, lung cancer and traumatic bleeding.	Lee et al;^Citation36 Zhao et al;^Citation89 Chen et al;^Citation90 Ci et al^Citation91
O. basilicum	Lamiaceae	It is one of the main Ocimum species and is commonly known as a sweet basil. It originates from Asia, and is cultivated in many Mediterranean and tropical countries.	Leaves	70% Ethanol	4-Allylphenol, anethole, methyl cinnamate, methyl salicylate, ethyl cinnamate, methyl eugenol, cuminaldehyde and estragole.	Treatment of headaches, coughs, constipation, kidney malfunctions, diarrhea, worms, warts, fevers, throat congestions and stomachache.	Eftekhar et al,^Citation37 Javanmardi et al;^Citation92 Prakash and Gupta^Citation93
P. fruticose	Araliaceae	It is widely distributed in Vietnam, China and in other tropical countries.	Leaves	Ethanol	Saponins, glycosides, sterols and alkaloids.	Treatment of ischemia and inflammation.	Koffuor et al;^Citation38 Do;^Citation94 Asumeng Koffuor et al;^Citation95 Hanh et al^Citation96
H. tiubae	Malvaceae	It is a shrub, found in Brazil and is popularly known as “mela bode” and “lava-prato”.	Aerial parts	Ethanol	Kaempherol	Treatment for fever and respiratory diseases.	Mozzini et al;^Citation39 Falcão‐Silva et al^Citation97
S. xanthocarpum	Solanaceae	It is mainly found in India.	Whole plant	Water	Alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, sterol, saponins and glycosides.	Treatment for expectorant, cough, asthma and chest pain.	Gulati;^Citation40 Ghani;^Citation98 Parmar et al^Citation99
C. sativus	Iridaceae	It is a flowering plant and commonly known as saffron. It is widely cultivated in Iran and other countries including India and Greece.	Petal stigma of flowers	70% Ethanol	Crocin, crocetin and safranal.	Used for antispasmodic and expectorant.	Mahmoudabady et al;^Citation41 Rios et al^Citation100
C. gigantea	Asclepiadaceae	It is commonly known as milkweed or swallow-wort and is mainly found in wasteland throughout India.	Root	Methanol	α and β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, taraxasterol and stigmasterol.	Treatment of asthma, leprosy, bronchitis and expectorant.	Bulani et al;^Citation42 Maheshwari and Singh;^Citation101 Warrier et al;^Citation102 Kirtikar and Basu^Citation103
U. dioica	Urticaceae	It is commonly known as nettle and is mainly found in Europe, much of the temperate Asia and western North Africa regions.	Leaves	Water	Caffeic acid, anthocyanidins, gallic acid, scopoletin, secoisolariciresinol, quercetin and carotenoids.	Anti-asthmatic, depurative and astringent.	Zemmouri et al;^Citation43 Randall et al;^Citation104 Chrubasik et al;^Citation105 Mittman^Citation106
W. tinctoria	Apocynaceae	It is commonly known as “Indrajau” and is distributed throughout the world, especially in India.	Leaves	90% Ethanol	Lupeol, β-amyrin, cycloartenone, β-sitosterol and cycloeucalenol.	Treatment of inflammation, mumps and herpes. Relieve toothache.	Khan and Imtiyaz;^Citation44 Srivastava^Citation107
A. cochinchinensis	Asparagaceae	The plant usually grows in China, Japan and Korea.	Root	Water	Steroidal saponins, phenolic compounds, flavonoid and protodioscine.	Treating lung and spleen-related diseases. To improve immunologic ability, eliminate superoxide radical effects and delay aging.	Choi et al;^Citation45 Xiong et al^Citation108
A. yomena	Asteraceae	It is an edible herb mainly found in Korea, China, Japan and Siberia.	Leaves	70% Ethanol	Phenolic compounds	Treatment of cough, asthma and insect bites	Sim et al^Citation46
A. cepa	Liliaceae	It is commonly known as onion. It grows around the world.	Vegetable	Methanol	Flavonoids (Quercetin)	Treatment for allergic and inflammation.	Marefati et al;^Citation47 Roldán et al;^Citation109 Lee and Jung^Citation110
A. argyi	Asteraceae	It is commonly known as mugwort, is distributed in China, Korea, Mongolia, Japan, and Russia.	Aerial parts	Methanol	Phenolic compounds (Dehydromatricarin A)	Control abdominal pain, inflammation, uterine hemorrhage and dysmenorrhea.	Shin et al;^Citation48 Kim et al;^Citation111 Kim et al;^Citation112 Yun et al;^Citation113 Lee et al;^Citation114 Yao et al^Citation115
Z. officinale	Zingiberaceae	It is commonly known as ginger, is consumed worldwide as both spice and flavoring agents. The plant is grown in many parts of the region including in Asia, India and Africa.	Rhizome	70% Ethanol	Zingerone, shogaols, gingerols, sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenoids.	Treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation, sore throats, nausea, constipation and indigestion, fever, infectious diseases and helminthiasis. Also used to treat chronic adjuvant arthritis and airway inflammation.	Khan et al;^Citation49 Srivastava;^Citation107 Ahui et al;^Citation116 Townsend et al^Citation117
E. japonicum	Liliaceae	It is an indigenous herb found in Korea and several East Asian countries. It is focused in Hokkaido and is also distributed throughout Japan.	Aerial parts	80% Ethanol	Isothiocyanates	Used as stomachic, anti-diarrheal, detoxification and nourishment.	Seo et al;^Citation50 Shin et al^Citation118
T. foenum-graecum	Fabaceae	It is commonly known as Fenugreek. It is a legume crop that is used as a spice in cooking. It is found mainly in India.	Seeds	Ethanol	Flavonoids	Laxative, olfactory and galactogogue.	Piao et al;^Citation51 Khalil et al^Citation119
E. scaber	Alismataceae	It is a sub-aquatic herbaceous plant native to Brazil, is also found in the regions of the Amazon and Pantanal.	Leaves	70% Ethanol	Phenolic compounds (Vitexin, rutin and gallic acid), flavonoids and alkaloids	Treatment of inflammation, allergies, rheumatism, kidney infections and respiratory diseases.	Rosa et al;^Citation52 Bieski et al;^Citation120 De la Cruz;^Citation121 Messias et al^Citation122
S. aethiopicus	Zingiberaceae	It is naturally distributed in many countries including South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Zambia.	Rhizomes	Diethyl ether/Ethanol/Water	Furanoterpenoid	Treatment of mild asthma, coughs, influenza and colds.	Fouche et al;^Citation53 Hutchings;^Citation123 Steenkamp;^Citation124 Steenkamp et al^Citation125
S. uncinata	Selaginellaceae	It is also known as “Cuiyuncao” in China and “Spring blue spike moss” in Europe. It is a perennial herb widely distributed in some Southeast Asian countries.	Whole plant	70% Ethanol	Flavonoids (Amentoflavone, hinokiflavone and isocryptomerin)	Relieve cough and ameliorate inflammation stasis. Treatment of asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis, jaundice, pertussis and edema.	Yu et al;^Citation54 Zou et al;^Citation126 Zheng et al;^Citation127 Li et al^Citation128
R. multiflora	Rosaceae	It is commonly known as “Multiflora Rose,” and is native to Korea, Japan and China.	Fructus	Water	Quercetin glycosides, vitamin E, carotene, multiflorins, minerals and essential fatty acids.	Treatment for rheumatism, edema, joint inflammation and beri-beri.	Bui et al;^Citation55 Cheng et al^Citation129
M. citrifolia	Rubiaceae	It is commonly known as “noni”, the fruits. It is a small tropical tree that grows widely in Polynesia, Australia, China and Hawaii.	Fruits	Hexane, ethyl acetate and n-butanol	Phenolic compounds, flavonoids, coumarins, phenolic acid, vanillin and iridoids.	Treatment for asthma and inflammation.	Dussossoy et al;^Citation56 Whistler^Citation130
S. baicalensis	Lamiaceae	It is commonly known as Skullcap and is widely distributed across Asia.	Skullcap	70% Ethanol	Polyphenolic compounds (baicalin, baicalein and wogonin)	Treatment for allergic, inflammation and viral infections.	Jung et al;^Citation57 Li-Weber;^Citation131 Zhang et al^Citation132
S. ternatum	Ophioglossaceae	It is a common herb and is mainly found in China.	Whole plant	70% Ethanol	Not identified	Deemed to have anti-toxic effects in the body. Also used in the treatment of asthma and whooping cough.	Yuan et al;^Citation58 Wang et al^Citation133
C. longa	Zingiberaceae	It is commonly known as turmeric and is native to Southwest India.	Rhizome	Ethanol	Curcumin	Treatment for cancer, arthritic, muscular disorders, inflammations, biliary disorders, anorexia, diabetes, sinusitis cough, diabetic wounds, microbial infections and hepatic disorders.	Shakeri et al;^Citation59 Omosa et al^Citation134
Z. bungeanum	Rutaceae	It is a popular condiment in cooking and is mainly found in China.	Seeds Oil	–	Alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids and fatty acids.	Treatment for digestive disorders, toothache, stomach ache, diarrhea and ascariasis.	Wang et al;^Citation60 Zhang et al;^Citation135 Rahman et al^Citation136
Polyherbal Extracts
Soshiho-tang	–	All the ingredients are common herbs, mainly found in China.	Bupleuri Radix (31.6%), Scutellariae Radix (21.1%), Ginseng Radix, (10.5%) Pinelliae Tuber (10.5%), Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma (5.3%), Zingiberis Rhizoma Crudus (10.5%), and Zizyphi Fructus (10.5%).	Water	Liquritin, glycyrrhizin and baicalin are commonly found in all the plants included in Soshiho-tang.	Treatment of pulmonary disorders include cold and pneumonitis.	Jeon et al;^Citation62 Ohtake et al^Citation61
Pentaherbs formula (PHF)	–	All the ingredients are common herbs, mainly found in China.	Lonicerae flos (50 g), Menthae herba (25 g), Phellodendri cortex (50 g), Moutan cortex (50 g) and Atractylodis rhizome (50 g)	Water	Not identified	Treatment for allergic, inflammation and asthma.	Tsang et al^Citation63

Table 2 Study Protocol and the Protective Mechanism of TMPs Against OVA-Induced Asthma

Medicinal Plant	Treatment Dose	Strain	OVA-Sensitization Route and Protocol	OVA-Challenge Route and Protocol	Mechanism of Action	Reference
S. striata	100 and 200 mg/kg**, i.p., 7 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (100 μg) + 1 mg of Al(OH)3, in 200 μL of PBS (Days 1–7, s.c.).	OVA (10 μg) in 200 μL of PBS on day 14 (i.p.).	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4 and IL-5), ↓ IgE, eosinophils and total inflammatory cells in BALF, ↓ reactive oxygen species (ROS).	Azadmehr et al^Citation34
L. dentata	300 mg/kg*, P.O., 21 days	Guinea pigs	OVA (0.1 mg) + 1 mg of Al(OH)3, in 0.5 mL of normal saline (Day 0, 7 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–23, aerosolised with 1 mg/mL of OVA in daily basis via nebuliser.	↓ Total plasma IgE, ↑ SOD, GSH and γ-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT).	Almohawes and Alruhaimi^Citation35
P. weinmannifolia	7.5 and 15 mg/kg**, P.O., 6 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (30 μg) + 3 mg of Al(OH)3, in 0.2 mL of PBS. (Twice daily on Day 0 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21‑23, aerosolised with 1% OVA (Al(OH)3‑free saline solution, 60 min/day) via nebuliser.	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-5), ↓ IgE, inhibit the influx of inflammatory cells into the lungs, as well as airway mucus hypersecretion.	Lee et al^Citation36
O. basilicum	0.75, 1.50 and 3.00 mg/mL**, P.O., 21 days	Wistar rats	OVA (1 mg/kg) + 100 mg of Al(OH)3, administered by i.p. and rats were exposed to OVA (2%) aerosol with air flow of 8 L/min for 20 min/day in a 0.8 m^3 chamber.	No OVA-challenge	↓ IL-4, IgE and PLA2. ↑ IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio and ↓ Total protein.	Eftekhar et al^Citation37
P. fruticose	100, 250* and 500 mg/kg, P.O. day 16	Guinea pigs	OVA (150 μg) + 100 mg Al(OH)3, in 1 mL of normal saline (Twice daily on day 1 and 7, i.p.).	On day 15, aerosolised with 1% saline solution of OVA for 30 min.	↓ Leucocytes and serum C-reactive protein.	Koffuor et al^Citation38
H. tiubae	50, 100 and 200 mg/kg**, P.O., 1 day	Balb/c mice	OVA (10 mg) + 2 mg Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 1 and 10, s.c.).	On days 19–24, aerosolised with after 1% OVA for 20 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ Inflammatory cell count in BALF. ↓ IL-13 and IgE.	Mozzini et al^Citation39
S. xanthocarpum	50, 100** and 200 mg/kg, P.O., 22 days	Wistar rats	OVA (40 mg) + 2 mg Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 0, i.p.).	14 days after immunisation, aerosolised with 1% OVA for 8 consecutive days via nebuliser.	↓ IL-4, IL-6, TNF-α and IgE. ↑ IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio, ↓ oxidative stress and MDA, ↑ GSH.	Gulati^Citation40
C. sativus	50, 100* and 200 mg/kg, P.O., 32 days	Wistar rats	OVA (1 mg) + 50 mg Al(OH)3, in 0.5 mL normal saline (i.p.). One week later, they were administered with 0.02 mg OVA + 50 mg Al(OH)3, in 0.5 mL saline (i.p.) as a booster dose.	On days 14–32, aerosolised with 4% OVA for 18±1 days, 5 min daily via nebuliser.	Inhibit eosinophils count in BALF, ↓ leucocytes and neutrophils.	Mahmoudabady et al^Citation41
C. gigantea	100, 200 and 400 mg/kg**, P.O., 14 days	Wistar rats	OVA (20 μg) + 8 mg Al(OH)3, in 1 mL normal saline (i.p.). A booster injection of the same amount was administered for 7 days (i.p.).	Seven days after (Day 15), aerosolised with 1% OVA for 30 min in a closed plexiglass chamber.	Inhibit eosinophils, neutrophils and lymphocytes and total leukocyte count in BALF, ↑ GSH, SOD and catalase (CAT), ↓ LPO, ROS and oxidative stress.	Bulani et al^Citation42
U. dioica	1.5 g/kg*, P.O., 25 days	Wistar rats	OVA (1 mg/mL) + 1 mg/mL of Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 0 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–23, aerosolised with OVA (5 mg/mL) for 30 min via a nebuliser.	Inhibit eosinophils in BALF. Suppress the inflammatory cells and ↓ LPO and ROS in lung tissues.	Zemmouri et al^Citation43
W. tinctoria	100, 150 and 250 mg/kg**, s.c., 24 days	Wistar rats	OVA (0.2 mL) mixed with Al(OH)3 (Days 0, 7, and 14, i.p.).	On days 22 and 24, aerosolised with 1 mL OVA in 100 mL PBS for 1 h daily via nebuliser.	↓ Total leukocyte count.	Khan et al^Citation49
A. cochinchinensis	250 and 500 mg/kg**, P.O., 6 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 µg) + 200 µL Al(OH)3, in PBS solution (Day 1 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–23, aerosolised with 2% OVA for 30 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ Macrophages, eosinophils, IgE and expression of Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-13, IL-1β) and TNF-α.	Choi et al^Citation45
A. yomena	(1g/kg*, P.O., 10 days)	Balb/c mice	OVA (75 µg) + 2 mg Al(OH)3, in 200 µL of PBS (Day 0 and 7, i.p.).	Days 14–16 and 21–23, 50 µg OVA in 20 µL PBS (i.n.).	↓ Th2 type cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13), eosinophils in the BALF and IgE in serum, ↓ transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and COX-2.	Sim et al^Citation46
A. cepa	35, 70 and 140 mg/kg**, P.O., 21 days	Wistar rats	OVA (1 mg/kg) + 100 mg of Al(OH)3, in normal saline (3 days, i.p.).	On days 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21, aerosolised with 1% OVA for 20 min/day via nebuliser with an air flow of 8 L/min.	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4), ↓ IgE, ↓ ROS, MDA and oxidative stress, ↑ GSH, SOD and CAT, ↑ IFN-γ and IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio.	Marefati et al^Citation47
A. argyi	50 and 100 mg/kg**, P.O., 6 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 μg) + 2 mg Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 0 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–23, aerosolised with 1% w/v of OVA for 1 h daily via nebuliser.	↓ Inflammatory cells, cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) and AHR. ↓ MMP-9 and p-ERK/t-ERK.	Shin et al^Citation48
Z. officinale	500*/720* mg/kg (ethanol/water extract), i.p., 7 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 mg) + 2 mg Al(OH)3, in 0.1 mL PBS (Day 0 and 14, i.p.).	Days 21–27, aerosolised with OVA/PBS (1 c/o), in daily basis via nebuliser.	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13). ↓ IgE in serum.	Khan et al^Citation49
E. japonicum	60 and 600 mg/kg**, P.O., 5 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 μg) + 1 mg Al(OH)3, in 500 μL of normal saline (Day 1 and 8, i.p.).	On days 21–25, aerosolised with 5% OVA for 30 min daily via nebuliser (3 mL/min).	↓ Secretion of mucus in the bronchioles, eosinophil infiltration around the bronchioles and vessels, and goblet cell and epithelial cell hyperplasia. ↓ Inflammatory cells, cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13), TNF-α and GATA-3, ↑ IFN-γ, ↓ IL-12p35 and IL-12p40.	Seo et al^Citation50
T. foenum-graecum	20 mg/mL*, P.O., 12 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (50 mg) + 1 mg Al(OH)3, 2 mL of normal saline (Day 1, i.p.). On day 14, they were administered with 50 mg OVA (i.p.) as a booster dose.	On days 27–29, aerosolised with 5% OVA for 20 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ IL-5, IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α. ↓ Inflammatory and goblet cells, ↓ anti-OVA IgG1	Piao et al^Citation51
E. scaber	1, 5 and 30 mg/kg**, P.O., twice a day for 6 days	Swiss Webster mice	OVA (100 μg/mL) + 10 mg/mL Al(OH)3, in 200 μL of normal saline (Day 1 and 10, i.p.).	On days 19–24, aerosolised with 3% OVA for 20 min for 20 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ Inflammatory cells and Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) and IgE.	Rosa et al^Citation52
S. aethiopicus	500 mg/kg*, i.p./P.O., two times daily, 4 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (50 µg) + 1.3% Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 0, 7 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–23, challenged intranasally (i.n.) with 1 mg of OVA.	↓ Lung inflammation and the percentage of eosinophils in BALF.	Fouche et al^Citation53
S. uncinata	500 mg/kg*, i.p., two times daily, 4 days	Sprague Dawley rats	OVA (20 μg) + 1 mg Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 1 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–27, aerosolised with 5% OVA for 1 h daily via nebuliser.	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13), ↓ IgE. ↓ Inflammatory and goblet cells. Up-regulate T2R10 gene expression and down-regulate IP3R1. Suppress NFAT1, ↑ IFN-γ.	Yu et al^Citation54
R. multiflora	100, 200 and 400** mg/kg, P.O., 13 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (50 μg) + 1 mg Al(OH)3, in 200 μL of normal saline (Day 0, 7 and 14, i.p.)	On days 21–27, challenged intranasally (i.n.) with 20 μL OVA (1 mg/mL) in each nasal cavity.	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) in NALT, NALF, and splenocytes. Up-regulate IL-12.	Bui et al^Citation55
M. citrifolia	2.17 mL/kg*, i.p., 8 days or 4.55 mL/kg*, P.O., 8 days	Brown Norway rats	OVA (1 mg/mL) + 100 mg/mL Al(OH)3, in normal saline (1 mL/day on Day 1, 2, 3 and 16, i.p.).	On days 22–29, aerosolised with OVA (1% w/v) for 20 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ Inflammatory cells in lung (macrophages, lymphocytes, eosinophils and neutrophils), ↓ ROS and NO levels.	Dussossoy et al^Citation56
S. baicalensis	–	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 µg) + 2 mg/mL of Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 0 and 14, i.p.).	–	↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, 5, 10 and 13) and ↑ Th1-mediated cytokines (IFN-γ and IL-12), ↑ IFN-γ.	Jung et al^Citation57
S. ternatum	1.935 g/kg, 9.675 g/kg and 19.350 g/kg**, P.O., 10 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (0.08%, 0.1 mL) mixed with equal volume of Inject Al(OH)3 (Day 1 and 14, i.p.).	On days 24–26, aerosolised with 10 mL of 1% OVA for 20 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ Airway responsiveness, elevated the ratio of Th1/Th2, and ↓ Cyslt1 mRNA.	Yuan et al^Citation58
C. longa	150, 300 and 600 mg/kg**, P.O., 21 days	Wistar rats	OVA (1 mg) + 100 mg of Al(OH)3, in normal saline (Day 1–3, i.p.).	On days 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21, aerosolised with 1% OVA 20 min daily via nebuliser.	↓ Tracheal contractile response, Interstitial fibrosis and inflammation.	Shakeri et al^Citation59
Z. bungeanum	2 g/kg*, i.p., day 1, 2, 3, 7 and 14	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 mg) + 40 mg of Al(OH)3, in 200 μL of normal saline (Day 1, i.p.). On day 9, 20 mg OVA + 10 mg of Al(OH)3, in 200 μL of normal saline (Day 1, i.p.).	On day 1–3, 7 and 14, aerosolised with 20 μg/50 μL OVA in normal saline via nebuliser.	↓ Pro-inflammatory cytokines, Inflammatory chemokines and adhesion molecules via down-regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and activation of JNK.	Wang et al^Citation60
Polyherbal Extracts
Soshiho-tang	100 and 200 mg/kg**, P.O., 6 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (20 μg) + 2 mg of Al(OH)3, in 200 μL of PBS (Day 0 and 14, i.p.).	On days 21–23, aerosolised with OVA (1% w/v) for 1 h via nebuliser.	↓ Eosinophils and inflammatory cells. ↓ Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-17 and IL-33) and ↓ chemokine (eotaxin) in BALF, ↓ IgE and induce heme oxygenase (HO)-1 protein expression.	Jeon et al^Citation62
Pentaherbs formula (PHF)	9.2 mg*, P.O., 14 days	Balb/c mice	OVA (1%) in Al(OH)3 (Day 1 and 8, i.p.).	On days 21–23, aerosolised with OVA (10 mg/mL) twice daily via nebuliser.	Suppresses pulmonary eosinophilia and ↓ IL-4 and IL-33 in BALF. In addition, modulate T cells population and up-regulate IL-10 in serum, ↓ TGF-β.	Tsang et al^Citation63

Notes: ↑ Indicates increased response; ↓ Indicates decreased response; *Most effective dose; **Dose-dependent; All the other abbreviations are available in the main text.

Figure 2 Protocol followed to investigate TMPs against OVA-induced asthma. OVA-induced animal asthma model: (A) mice, (B) Guinea pig, (C) Rat. The above figure depicts the timeline of OVA sensitization and challenge followed by the end readouts. Schedules of sensitization and challenge depend on the type of animal model and routes of administration. In addition, varying OVA doses (with or without adjuvant) have been used both in sensitization and challenge (for more information, see Table 1).

Figure 3 Possible mechanism of action of TMPs against OVA-induced asthma. As an allergen, OVA-induces airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness. As a protein OVA recognized, processed and presented by the antigen-presenting cells. Upon presentation, CD4⁺ T helper (Th0) cells are activated and polarized toward Th2 phenotype, which activates eosinophils (Eosinophilic asthma), mast cells, and basophils to secret inflammatory mediators. OVA directly or indirectly (via Th cells mediated) activates the B lymphocytes to secret IgE, which is the main correlative factor in allergen-induced asthma. TMPs may either act by inhibiting antigen presentation or cytokine secretion or other inflammatory mediators (histamine, leukotrienes, and others). The figure was created with the support of https://biorender.com under the paid subscription.

Larché M, Akdis CA, Valenta R. Immunological mechanisms of allergen-specific immunotherapy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2006;6(10):761–771. doi:10.1038/nri1934

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Azadmehr A, Hajiaghaee R, Zohal MA, et al. Protective effects of Scrophularia striata in Ovalbumin-induced mice asthma model. DARU J Pharmaceutical Sci. 2013;21(1):56–62. doi:10.1186/2008-2231-21-56

 Google Scholar

Tamri P. A mini-review on phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Scrophularia striata. J Herbmed Pharmacol. 2019;8(2):85–89. doi:10.15171/jhp.2019.14

 Google Scholar

Almohawes Z, Alruhaimi H. Effect of Lavandula dentata extract on Ovalbumin-induced Asthma in Male Guinea Pigs. Brazilian Journal of Biology. 2020;80(1):87–96. doi:10.1590/1519-6984.191485

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee J-W, Min J-H, Kim M-G, et al. Pistacia weinmannifolia root exerts a protective role in ovalbumin‑induced lung inflammation in a mouse allergic asthma model.. Int J Mol Med. 2019;44(6):2171–2180. doi:10.3892/ijmm.2019.4367

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhao X, Sun H, Hou A, et al. Antioxidant properties of two gallotannins isolated from the leaves of Pistacia weinmannifolia. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 2005;1725(1):103–110. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2005.04.015

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chen S, Wu X, Ji Y, et al. Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in Pistacia weinmannifolia (Anacardiaceae). Int J Mol Sci. 2011;12(11):7818–7823. doi:10.3390/ijms12117818

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ci X, Chu X, Chen C, et al. Oxytetracycline attenuates allergic airway inflammation in mice via inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. J Clin Immunol. 2011;31(2):216–227. doi:10.1007/s10875-010-9481-7

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Eftekhar N, Moghimi A, Roshan NM, et al. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of hydro-ethanolic extract of Ocimum basilicum leaves and its effect on lung pathological changes in an ovalbumin-induced rat model of asthma. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19(1):349. doi:10.1186/s12906-019-2765-4

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Javanmardi J, Khalighi A, Kashi A, et al. Chemical Characterization of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Found in Local Accessions and Used in Traditional Medicines in Iran. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50(21):5878–5883. doi:10.1021/jf020487q

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Prakash P, Gupta N. Therapeutic uses of Ocimum sanctum Linn (Tulsi) with a note on eugenol and its pharmacological actions: a short review.. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2005;49(2):125.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Koffuor GA, Boye A, Ofori-Amoah J, et al. Anti-inflammatory and safety assessment of Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms (Araliaceae) leaf extract in ovalbumin-induced asthma. J Phytopharm. 2014;3(5):337–342.

 Google Scholar

Do T. Vietnamese Medicinal Plants and Remedies. Hanoi. Medicine Publisher; 2000:828–830.

 Google Scholar

Asumeng Koffuor G, Boye A, Kyei S, et al. Anti-asthmatic property and possible mode of activity of an ethanol leaf extract of Polyscias fruticosa. Pharm Biol. 2016;54(8):1354–1363. doi:10.3109/13880209.2015.1077465

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hanh TTH, Dang NH, Dat NT. α-Amylase and α -Glucosidase Inhibitory Saponins from Polyscias fruticosa Leaves. J Chem. 2016;2016:1–5. doi:10.1155/2016/2082946

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mozzini MT, Ferrera Costa H, Carvalho Vieira G, et al. Anti-asthmatic and anxiolytic effects of Herissantia tiubae, a Brazilian medicinal plant. Immun Inflamm Dis. 2016;4(2):201–212. doi:10.1002/iid3.107

 Google Scholar

Falcão-Silva VS, Silva DA, Souza V, et al. Modulation of drug resistance in staphylococcus aureus by a kaempferol glycoside from Herissantia tiubae (Malvaceae). Phytother Res. 2009;23(10):1367–1370. doi:10.1002/ptr.2695

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gulati K. Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects of Aqueous Extract of Solanum Xanthocarpum in Experimental Models of Bronchial Asthma. EC Pharmacol Toxicol. 2016;2:241–250.

 Google Scholar

Ghani A. Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh: Chemical Constituents and Uses. Vol. 2. Asiatic society of Bangladesh; 1998:81.

 Google Scholar

Parmar S, Gangwal A, Sheth N. Solanum xanthocarpum (yellow berried night shade): a review. Der Pharm Lett. 2010;2(4):373–383.

 Google Scholar

Mahmoudabady M, Neamati A, Vosooghi S, et al. Hydroalcoholic extract of Crocus sativus effects on bronchial inflammatory cells in ovalbumin sensitized rats. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3(4):356.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Rios J, Recio M, Giner R, et al. An update review of saffron and its active constituents. Phytother Res. 1996;10(3):189–193. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(199605)10:3<189::AID-PTR754>3.0.CO;2-C

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bulani V, Biyani K, Kale R, et al. Inhibitory effect of Calotropis gigantea extract on ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation and Arachidonic acid induced inflammation in a murine model of asthma. Int J Cur Bio Med Sci. 2011;1(2):19–25.

 Google Scholar

Maheshwari P, Singh U. Dictionary of Economic Plants in India. Dictionary of Economic Plants in India. New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research; 1965:38–39.

 Google Scholar

Warrier P, Nambiar V, Ramankutty C, et al. Indian Medicinal Plants. New Delhi: Orient Longman; 1995:341–343.

 Google Scholar

Kirtikar K, Basu B. Indian medicinal plants. Phytother Res. 1935;1607–1609.

 Google Scholar

Zemmouri H, Sekiou O, Ammar S, et al. Urtica dioica attenuates ovalbumin-induced inflammation and lipid peroxidation of lung tissues in rat asthma model. Pharm Biol. 2017;55(1):1561–1568. doi:10.1080/13880209.2017.1310905

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Randall C, Randall H, Dobbs F, et al. Randomized controlled trial of nettle sting for treatment of base-of-thumb pain. J R Soc Med. 2000;93(6):305–309. doi:10.1177/014107680009300607

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chrubasik S, Enderlein W, Bauer R, et al. Evidence for antirheumatic effectiveness of Herba Urticae dioicae in acute arthritis: a pilot study. Phytomedicine. 1997;4(2):105–108. doi:10.1016/S0944-7113(97)80052-9

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mittman P. Randomized, Double-Blind Study of Freeze-Dried Urtica dioica in the Treatment of Allergic Rhinitis. Planta Med. 1990;56(01):44–47. doi:10.1055/s-2006-960881

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Khan Z, Ansari I. Antiasthmatic activity of the ethanol extract of leaves of Wrightia tinctoria.. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2018;11(9):136–139. doi:10.22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i9.26151

 Google Scholar

Srivastava R. A review on phytochemical, pharmacological, and pharmacognostical profile of Wrightia tinctoria: adulterant of kurchi. Pharmacogn Rev. 2014;8(15):36. doi:10.4103/0973-7847.125528

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Choi JY, Kim J, Park JJ, et al. The anti-inflammatory effects of fermented herbal roots of Asparagus cochinchinensis in an ovalbumin-induced asthma model. J Clin Med. 2018;7(10):377. doi:10.3390/jcm7100377

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Xiong D, Yu L-X, Yan X, et al. Effects of Root and Stem Extracts of Asparagus cochinchinensis on Biochemical Indicators Related to Aging in the Brain and Liver of Mice. Am J Chin Med. 2011;39(04):719–726. doi:10.1142/S0192415X11009159

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sim JH, Lee HS, Lee S, et al. Anti-Asthmatic Activities of an Ethanol Extract of Aster yomena in an Ovalbumin-Induced Murine Asthma Model. J Med Food. 2014;17(5):606–611. doi:10.1089/jmf.2013.2939

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Marefati N, Eftekhar N, Kaveh M, et al. The effect of Allium cepa extract on lung oxidant, antioxidant, and immunological biomarkers in ovalbumin-sensitized rats. Med Princ Pract. 2018;27(2):122–128. doi:10.1159/000487885

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Roldán E, Sanchez-Moreno C, de Ancos B, et al. Characterisation of onion (Allium cepa L.) by-products as food ingredients with antioxidant and antibrowning properties. Food Chem. 2008;108(3):907–916. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.11.058

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee BK, Jung Y-S. Allium cepa extract and quercetin protect neuronal cells from oxidative stress via PKC-ε inactivation/ERK1/2 activation. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016;2016:1–9.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Shin N-R, Ryu H-W, Ko J-W, et al. Artemisia argyi attenuates airway inflammation in ovalbumin-induced asthmatic animals. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;209:108–115. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.07.033

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kim AR, Ko HJ, Chowdhury MA, et al. Chemical constituents on the aerial parts of Artemisia selengensis and their IL-6 inhibitory activity. Arch Pharm Res. 2015;38(6):1059–1065. doi:10.1007/s12272-014-0543-x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kim JK, Shin E-C, Lim H-J, et al. Characterization of nutritional composition, antioxidative capacity, and sensory attributes of Seomae mugwort, a native Korean variety of Artemisia argyi H. J Anal Methods Chem. 2015;1–6.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yun C, Jung Y, Chun W, et al. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Artemisia Leaf Extract in Mice with Contact Dermatitis In Vitro and In Vivo. Mediators Inflamm. 2016;2016:1–8. doi:10.1155/2016/8027537

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee NY, Chung K-S, Jin JS, et al. Effect of chicoric acid on mast cell-mediated allergic inflammation in vitro and in vivo. J Nat Prod. 2015;78(12):2956–2962. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00668

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yao X, Wu D, Dong N, et al. Moracin C, A Phenolic Compound Isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus, Suppresses Lipopolysaccharide-Activated Inflammatory Responses in Murine Raw264.7 Macrophages. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(8):1199. doi:10.3390/ijms17081199

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Khan AM, Shahzad M, Raza Asim M, et al. Zingiber officinale ameliorates allergic asthma via suppression of Th2-mediated immune response. Pharm Biol. 2015;53(3):359–367. doi:10.3109/13880209.2014.920396

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ahui MLB, Champy P, Ramadan A, et al. Ginger prevents Th2-mediated immune responses in a mouse model of airway inflammation. Int Immunopharmacol. 2008;8(12):1626–1632. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2008.07.009

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Townsend EA, Siviski ME, Zhang Y, et al. Effects of ginger and its constituents on airway smooth muscle relaxation and calcium regulation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2013;48(2):157–163. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2012-0231OC

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Seo J-H, Bang M, Kim G, et al. Erythronium japonicum attenuates histopathological lung abnormalities in a mouse model of ovalbumin-induced asthma. Int J Mol Med. 2016;37(5):1221–1228. doi:10.3892/ijmm.2016.2541

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Shin YJ, Jung DY, Ha HK, et al. Anticancer effect of Erythronium japonicum extract on ICR mouse and L1210 cells with alteration of antioxidant enzyme activities. Korean J Food Sci Technol. 2004;36:968–973.

 Google Scholar

Piao CH, Bui TT, Song CH, et al. Trigonella foenum-graecum alleviates airway inflammation of allergic asthma in ovalbumin-induced mouse model. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2017;482(4):1284–1288. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.12.029

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Khalil MI, Ibrahim MM, El-Gaaly GA, et al. Trigonella foenum (Fenugreek) induced apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cell line, HepG2, mediated by upregulation of p53 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rosa SIG, Rios-Santos F, Balogun SO, et al. Hydroethanolic extract from Echinodorus scaber Rataj leaves inhibits inflammation in ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;203:191–199. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.025

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bieski IGC, Rios Santos F, De Oliveira RM, et al. Ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants of the Pantanal region (Mato Grosso, Brazil). Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2012;2012:1–36. doi:10.1155/2012/272749

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

De la Cruz MG. Plantas Medicinais De Mato Grosso: A Farmacopéia Popular Dos Raizeiros. Plantas Medicinais De Mato Grosso: A Farmacopéia Popular Dos Raizeiros. Brazil: Carlini Caniato; 2008:224.

 Google Scholar

Messias MCTB, Menegatto M, Prado ACC, et al. Uso popular de plantas medicinais e perfil socioeconômico dos usuários: um estudo em área urbana em Ouro Preto, MG, Brasil. Revista Brasileira De Plantas Medicinais. 2015;17(1):76–104. doi:10.1590/1983-084X/12_139

 Google Scholar

Fouche G, Nieuwenhuizen N, Maharaj V, et al. Investigation of in vitro and in vivo anti-asthmatic properties of Siphonochilus aethiopicus. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133(2):843–849. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.014

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hutchings A. Zulu Medicinal Plants: An Inventory. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal press; 1996:64.

 Google Scholar

Steenkamp V. Traditional herbal remedies used by South African women for gynaecological complaints. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86(1):97–108. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00053-9

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Steenkamp V, Grimmer H, Semano M, et al. Antioxidant and genotoxic properties of South African herbal extracts. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen. 2005;581(1–2):35–42. doi:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.10.009

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yu B, Cai W, Zhang -H-H, et al. Selaginella uncinata flavonoids ameliorated ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation in a rat model of asthma. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;195:71–80. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2016.11.049

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zou H, Yi M-L, Xu K-P, et al. Two new flavonoids from Selaginella uncinata. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2016;18(3):248–252. doi:10.1080/10286020.2015.1063617

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zheng J-X, Zheng Y, Zhi H, et al. New 3′,8′′-Linked Biflavonoids from Selaginella uncinata Displaying Protective Effect against Anoxia. Molecules. 2011;16(8):6206–6214. doi:10.3390/molecules16086206

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chen K-L, Li J, Lei X. Comparison of cytotoxic activities of extracts from Selaginella species. Pharmacogn Mag. 2014;10(40):529. doi:10.4103/0973-1296.141794

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bui TT, Kwon D-A, Choi DW, et al. Rosae multiflorae fructus extract and its four active components alleviate ovalbumin-induced allergic inflammatory responses via regulation of Th1/Th2 imbalance in BALB/c rhinitis mice. Phytomedicine. 2019;55:238–248. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2018.06.044

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cheng BCY, Yu H, Su T, et al. A herbal formula comprising Rosae Multiflorae Fructus and Lonicerae Japonicae Flos inhibits the production of inflammatory mediators and the IRAK-1/TAK1 and TBK1/IRF3 pathways in RAW 264.7 and THP-1 cells. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;174:195–199. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2015.08.018

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dussossoy E, Bichon F, Bony E, et al. Pulmonary anti-inflammatory effects and spasmolytic properties of Costa Rican noni juice (Morinda citrifolia L.). J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;192:264–272. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.038

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Whistler WA. Tongan Herbal Medicine. Isle Botanica, Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press; 1992:89–90.

 Google Scholar

Jung SY, Lee S-Y, Choi DW, et al. Skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) hexane fraction inhibits the permeation of ovalbumin and regulates Th1/2 immune responses. Nutrients. 2017;9(11):1184. doi:10.3390/nu9111184

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Li-Weber M. New therapeutic aspects of flavones: the anticancer properties of Scutellaria and its main active constituents Wogonin, Baicalein and Baicalin. Cancer Treat Rev. 2009;35(1):57–68. doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2008.09.005

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhang Z, Lian X, Li S, et al. Characterization of chemical ingredients and anticonvulsant activity of American skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora). Phytomedicine. 2009;16(5):485–493. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2008.07.011

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Yuan Y, Yang B, Ye Z, et al. Sceptridium ternatum extract exerts antiasthmatic effects by regulating Th1/Th2 balance and the expression levels of leukotriene receptors in a mouse asthma model. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;149(3):701–706. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2013.07.032

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wang S, Ruan J, Zhuang J. Small Chunhua oral mouse model of chronic bronchitis and pathological forms of influence and expectorant effects. Fujian Chin Med. 2001;32:18–19.

 Google Scholar

Shakeri F, Roshan NM, Boskabady MH. Hydro-ethanolic extract of Curcuma longa affects tracheal responsiveness and lung pathology in ovalbumin-sensitized rats. Int J Vitamin Nutrition Res. 2020;90(1–2):141–150. doi:10.1024/0300-9831/a000524

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Omosa L, Midiwo J, Kuete V. Curcuma Longa. Medicinal Spices and Vegetables from Africa. Elsevier; 2017:425–435.

 Google Scholar

Wang J-Q, Li X-W, Liu M, et al. Inhibitory effect of Zanthoxylum bungeanum seed oil on ovalbumin-induced lung inflammation in a murine model of asthma. Mol Med Rep. 2016;13(5):4289–4302. doi:10.3892/mmr.2016.5050

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhang M, Wang J, Zhu L, et al. Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. (Rutaceae): a Systematic Review of Its Traditional Uses, Botany, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics, and Toxicology. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(10):2172. doi:10.3390/ijms18102172

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rahman M, Alimuzzaman M, Ahmad S, et al. Antinociceptive and antidiarrhoeal activity of Zanthoxylum rhetsa. Fitoterapia. 2002;73(4):340–342. doi:10.1016/S0367-326X(02)00083-7

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Jeon W-Y, Shin H-K, Shin I-S, et al. Soshiho-tang water extract inhibits ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation via the regulation of heme oxygenase-1. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015;15(1):1–10. doi:10.1186/s12906-015-0857-3

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ohtake N, Nakai Y, Yamamoto M, et al. The herbal medicine Shosaiko-to exerts different modulating effects on lung local immune responses among mouse strains. Int Immunopharmacol. 2002;2(2–3):357–366. doi:10.1016/S1567-5769(01)00161-8

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tsang MS, Jiao D, Chan BC, et al. Anti-inflammatory activities of pentaherbs formula, berberine, gallic acid and chlorogenic acid in atopic dermatitis-like skin inflammation. Molecules. 2016;21(4):519. doi:10.3390/molecules21040519

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar