Food Insecurity Associated with Attendance to Antenatal Care Among Pregnant Women: Findings from a Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study in Southern Ethiopia

Figures & data

Figure 1 Advice received during ANC among pregnant women in Arba Minch Zuria woreda, Gamo Gofa Zone, SNNPR, March 2015.

Notes: BP/CR, birth preparedness and complication readiness; Others, test for HIV, not to lift heavy objects. NB: Multiple answers were possible for the counts in the figure.

Table 1 ANC Service Attendance Among Pregnant Women in Arba Minch Zuria Woreda by Their Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics, March 2015

Variables (N=707)	Category	Attended ANC Service
		Yes	No
Age	Less than 20	60 (12%)	29 (14.1%)
	20–34	347 (69.1%)	126 (61.5%)
	35 and above	95 (18.9%)	50 (24.4%)
Educational status	Illiterate	160 (31.9%)	94 (45.9%)
	Read and write	44 (8.8%)	27 (13.2%)
	Primary education	224 (44.7%)	63 (30.7%)
	Secondary education	73 (14.6%)	21 (10.2%)
Marital status	In marital union	486 (96.8%)	190 (92.7%)
	Not in marital union	16 (3.2%)	15 (7.3%)
Occupation	Farmer	231 (46%)	107 (52.2%)
	Housewives	185 (36.9%)	64 (31.2%)
	Others	86 (17.1%)	34 (16.6%)
Wealth index	Low	116 (23.2)	87 (42.4%)
	Low–medium	104 (20.8%)	45 (22%)
	Medium–high	84 (16.8%)	39 (19%)
	High	196 (39.2%)	34 (16.6%)
Ever listened radio	Yes	286 (41%)	84 (57%)
	No	216 (59%)	121 (43%)

Table 2 ANC Service Attendance Among Pregnant Women in Arba Minch Zuria Woreda by Their Obstetric Characteristics, March 2015

Variables	Category	Attended ANC Service
		Yes	No
Gravida (N=707)	2 and above	430 (85.7%)	158 (77.1%)
	1	72 (14.3%)	47 (22.9%)
Planned pregnancy (N=707)	Yes	335 (66.7%)	85 (41.5%)
	No	167 (33.3%)	120 (58.5%)
Age at first pregnancy (N=707)	Less than 18	210 (41.8%)	72 (35.1%)
	18 and above	292 (58.2%)	133 (64.9%)
Parity (N=583)	One	158 (36.9%)	45 (29%)
	Two to four	238 (55.6%)	94 (60.6%)
	Five and above	32 (7.5%)	16 (10.3%)
Place of last birth (N=589)	At home	223 (51.7%)	116 (73.4%)
	At health institution	208 (48.3%)	42 (26.6%)
History of still birth (N=589)	Yes	48 (11.1%)	22 (13.9%)
	No	383 (88.9%)	136 (86.1%)
History of abortion/miscarriage (N=588)	Yes	82 (19.1%)	32 (20.1%)
	No	347 (80.9%)	127 (79.9%)
Perception of future risk in pregnancy (N=707)	Yes	377 (75.1%)	84 (41%)
	No	125 (24.9%)	121 (59%)
Knowledgeable on danger signs (N=707)	Yes	393 (78.3%)	92 (44.9%)
	No	109 (21.7%)	113 (55.1%)

Figure 2 Different degrees of food insecurity among pregnant women in Arba Minch Zuria woreda, Gamo Gofa Zone, SNNPR, March 2015.

Table 3 ANC Service Attendance Among Pregnant Women in Arba Minch Zuria Woreda by Their Food Security Status, March 2015

Variables (N=707)	Category	Attended ANC service
		Yes	No
Mildly food insecure	Yes	140 (27.9%)	77 (37.6%)
	No	361 (72.1%)	128 (62.4%)
Moderately food insecure	Yes	67 (13.4%)	30 (14.7%)
	No	434 (86.6%)	174 (85.3%)
Severely food insecure	Yes	41 (8.2%)	29 (14.2%)
	No	459 (91.8%)	175 (85.8%)
Food insecure	Yes	248 (49.4%)	136 (66.3%)
	No	254 (50.6%)	69 (33.7%)

Table 4 Factors Affecting ANC Service Attendance Among Pregnant Women in Arba Minch Zuria Woreda, Gamo Gofa Zone, South Ethiopia, March 2015

Variables	Category	Attendance to ANC Service		Crude OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)
		Yes	No
Educational status	Illiterate	160 (31.9%)	94 (45.9%)	1	1
	Read and write	44 (8.8%)	27 (13.2%)	0.96 (0.56–1.65)	0.61 (0.28–1.33)
	Primary education	224 (44.7%)	63 (30.7%)	2.09 (1.43–3.05)^b	1.37 (0.75–2.51)
	Secondary education	73 (14.6%)	21 (10.2%)	2.04 (1.18–3.53)^b	0.65 (0.25–1.66)
Marital status	In marital union	486 (96.8%)	190 (92.7%)	1	1
	Not in marital union	16 (3.2%)	15 (7.3%)	0.42 (0.21–0.86)^b	0.39 (0.16–0.97)^c
Occupation	Farmer	231 (46%)	107 (52.2%)	1	1
	Housewives	185 (36.9%)	64 (31.2%)	1.34 (0.93–1.93)	1.55 (0.93–2.58)
	Others^a	86 (17.1%)	34 (16.6%)	1.17 (0.74–1.85)	1.44 (0.73–2.85)
Quintiles of wealth/SES	Low	116 (23.%)	87 (42.4%)	1	1
	Low–medium	104 (20.8%)	45 (22%)	1.73 (1.12–2.71)^b	1.54 (0.81–2.92)
	Medium–high	84 (16.8%)	39 (19%)	1.62 (1.01–2.58)^b	1.30 (0.63–2.69)
	High	196 (39.2%)	34 (16.6%)	4.33 (2.74–6.84)^b	2.62 (1.29–5.29)^c
Ever listened to radio	Yes	286 (41%)	84 (57%)	1.91 (1.37–2.65)^b	1.03 (0.61–1.75)
	No	216 (59%)	121 (43%)	1	1
Food insecure	Yes	248 (49.4%)	136 (66.3%)	0.49 (0.35–0.69)^b	0.50 (0.32–0.79)^c
	No	254 (50.6%)	69 (33.7%)	1	1
Planned pregnancy	Yes	335 (66.7%)	85 (41.5%)	2.83 (2.03–3.96)^b	1.82 (1.16–2.85)^c
	No	167 (33.3%)	120 (58.5%)	1	1
Parity	One	158 (36.9%)	45 (29%)	1	1
	Two to four	238 (55.6%)	94 (60.6%)	0.72 (0.48–1.08)	0.76 (0.47–1.24)
	Five and above	32 (7.5%)	16 (10.3%)	0.57 (0.28–1.13)	1.15 (0.49–2.69)
Place of last birth	At home	223 (51.7%)	116 (73.4%)	1	1
	At health institution	208 (48.3%)	42 (26.6%)	2.57 (1.73–3.84)^b	1.47 (0.92–2.35)
History of still birth	Yes	48 (11.1%)	22 (13.9%)	0.77 (0.45–1.33)	0.68 (0.34–1.37)
	No	383 (88.9%)	136 (86.1%)	1	1
History of abortion/miscarriage	Yes	82 (19.1%)	32 (20.1%)	0.94 (0.59–1.48)	0.85 (0.46–1.55)
	No	347 (80.9%)	127 (79.9%)	1	1
Knowledgeable on danger signs	Yes	393 (78.3%)	92 (44.9%)	4.43 (3.13–6.27)^b	1.12 (0.41–3.04)
	No	109 (21.7%)	113 (55.1%)	1	1
Perceived risk from danger signs	Yes	377 (75.1%)	84 (41%)	4.34 (3.08–6.13)^b	4.32 (1.60–11.67)^c
	No	125 (24.9%)	121 (59%)	1	1

Notes: ^aCarpenter, daily laborer, etc. ^bSignificant at bivariate analysis at P-value of <0.25, ^cSignificant at multivariable analysis at P-value of <0.05. Adjusted for women’s educational status, marital status, occupation, habit of listening radio, household wealth and food insecurity status, parity, plan of pregnancy, place of previous birth, history of still birth, history of abortion/miscarriage, knowledge on danger signs and perceived risk from danger signs.

Abbreviations: SES, socio-economic status; COR, crude odds ratio; AOR, adjusted odds ratio.