Factors Associated with Handgrip Strength Among Older Adults in Malaysia

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic, Socioeconomic Characteristics, and the Behavioral Lifestyles of Respondents

Variables	Total			Male			Female
	N (%)	HGS (kg)	P-value	N (%)	HGS (kg)	P-value	N (%)	HGS (kg)	P-value
		Mean (SD)			Mean (SD)			Mean (SD)
Sex
Male	691 (57.4)	30.0 (7.53)	<0.001^a
Female	513 (42.6)	19.4 (5.29)
Age group^d
Young old (60–74 years)	996 (82.7)	26.7 (8.19)	<0.001^c	588 (85.1)	31.1 (7.16)	<0.001^c	408 (79.5)	20.5 (4.82)	<0.001^c
Middle old (75–84 years)	186 (15.4)	19.9 (6.97)		96 (13.9)	23.8 (6.49)		90 (17.5)	15.7 (4.66)
Old old (≥85 years)	22 (1.8)	14.6 (6.37)		7 (1.0)	20.9 (4.57)		15 (2.9)	11.6 (4.74)
Marital status
Married	802 (66.6)	28.1 (8.13)	<0.001^a	615 (89.0)	30.3 (7.54)	<0.001^a	187 (36.5)	20.7 (5.02)	<0.001^a
Unmarried/widowed/divorced	402 (33.4)	20.2 (6.51)		76 (11.0)	27.2 (6.75)		326 (63.5)	18.6 (5.28)
Household composition
Live alone	64 (5.3)	20.8 (6.31)	<0.001^a	13 (1.9)	27.9 (7.12)	0.308^a	51 (9.9)	19.0 (4.64)	0.568^a
Live with family/friend	1140 (94.7)	25.7 (8.51)		678 (98.1)	30.0 (7.53)		462 (90.1)	19.4 (5.35)
Location
Rural	602 (50.0)	25.3 (8.63)	0.403^a	339 (49.1)	29.9 (7.82)	0.775^a	263 (51.3)	19.3 (5.29)	0.668^a
Urban	602 (50.0)	25.7 (8.34)		352 (50.9)	30.1 (7.25)		250 (48.7)	19.5 (5.28)
Education Level^d
No school	121 (10.0)	19.9 (6.98)	<0.001^c	25 (3.6)	26.6 (8.85)	<0.001^c	96 (18.7)	18.2 (5.18)	0.006^c
Primary	544 (45.2)	24.1 (8.13)		285 (41.2)	28.7 (7.57)		259 (50.5)	19.1 (5.31)
Secondary	426 (35.4)	27.6 (8.24)		289 (41.8)	31.0 (7.00)		137 (26.7)	20.4 (5.03)
Tertiary	113 (9.4)	29.9 (8.02)		92 (13.3)	32.0 (7.52)		21 (4.1)	21.0 (5.85)
Current employment
Employed	169 (14.0)	29.3 (7.86)	<0.001^a	128 (18.5)	31.8 (6.88)	0.002^+	41 (8.0)	21.4 (4.95)	0.011^a
Unemployed	1035 (86.0)	24.8 (8.42)		563 (81.5)	29.6 (7.60)		472 (92.0)	19.2 (5.28)
Household income^e
B40 (lower income)	1094 (90.9)	25.2 (8.42)	<0.001^b	609 (88.1)	29.8 (7.57)	0.074^b	485 (94.5)	19.3 (5.23)	0.555^b
M40 (middle income)	98 (8.1)	28.5 (8.70)		71 (10.3)	31.9 (6.91)		27 (5.3)	19.6 (6.25)
T20 (upper income)	12 (1.0)	29.3 (7.41)		11 (1.6)	29.7 (7.64)		1 (0.2)	25.0 (0.0)
Smoking status
Yes	424 (35.2)	29.9 (7.64)	<0.001^a	405 (58.2)	30.3 (7.43)	0.148^a	19 (3.7)	20.1 (5.08)	0.524^a
No	780 (64.8)	23.1 (7.94)		286 (41.4)	29.5 (7.63)		494 (96.3)	19.3 (5.30)
Alcohol consumption
Yes	120 (10.0)	29.4 (8.18)	<0.001^a	104 (15.1)	33.5 (6.33)	0.179^a	16 (3.1)	20.2 (5.95)	0.547^a
No	1084 (90.0)	25.0 (8.40)		587 (84.9)	29.8 (7.51)		497 (96.9)	19.3 (5.27)
Physically active
Yes	877 (72.8)	26.5 (8.10)	<0.001^a	510 (73.8)	31.1 (6.64)	<0.001^a	367 (1.5)	20.1 (5.00)	<0.001^a
No	327 (27.2)	22.8 (8.89)		181 (26.2)	26.9 (8.89)		146 (8.5)	17.6 (5.58)

Notes: ^aIndependent sample t-test. ^bOne-way ANOVA. ^cWelch’s ANOVA test as homogeneity of variance was violated. ^dPost hoc Tamhane’s test for overall are all significant. ^ePost hoc Bonferroni, the only significance in the overall group was “B40” with “M40”.

Abbreviations: HGS, handgrip strength; SD, standard deviation; kg, kilogram.

Table 2 Values of Handgrip Strength (HGS) According to the Selected Noncommunicable Diseases (NCDs)

Variable	N (%)	HGS (kg)	P-value ^a	N (%)	Age Adjusted HGS (kg) for Male	P-value ^b	N (%)	Age Adjusted HGS (kg) for Female	P-value ^b
		Mean (95% CI)			Mean (95% CI)			Mean (95% CI)
Obesity
Yes	491 (40.8)	25.4 (24.61, 26.12)	0.807	250 (36.2)	29.4 (28.54–30.22)	0.081	241 (47.0)	19.8 (19.24–20.42)	0.032
No	713 (59.2)	25.5 (24.86, 26.11)		441 (63.8)	30.3 (29.69–30.97)		272 (53.0)	18.9 (18.39–19.49)
Hypertension
Yes	775 (64.4)	24.8 (24.17, 2536)	<0.001	420 (60.8)	29.9 (29.23–30.51)	0.119	355 (69.2)	19.1 (18.63–19.59)	0.057
No	429 (35.6)	26.7 (25.94, 2754)		271 (39.2)	30.4 (29.60–31.29)		158 (30.8)	20.0 (19.24–20.68)
Diabetes Mellitus
Yes	434 (36.0)	24.3 (23.49, 25.08)	<0.001	242 (35.0)	28.5 (27.65–29.33)	<0.001	192 (37.4)	18.9 (18.21–19.51)	0.050
No	770 (64.0)	26.1 (25.54, 26.73)		449 (65.0)	30.8 (30.19–31.42)		321 (62.6)	19.7 (19.18–20.18)
Dyslipidaemia
Yes	570 (47.3)	25.1 (24.30, 26.47)	0.139	316 (45.7)	29.6 (28.88–30.37)	0.185	254 (49.5)	19.4 (18.86–20.00)	0.798
No	634 (52.7)	25.8 (25.15, 26.47)		375 (54.3)	30.3 (29.62–30.99)		259 (50.5)	19.3 (18.76–19.88)
Heart Disease				99 (14.3)
Yes	139 (11.5)	25.4 (24.00, 26.83)	0.936	99 (14.3)	29.7 (28.31–30.98)	0.579	40 (7.8)	18.0 (16.53–19.43)	0.05
No	1065 (88.5)	25.5 (24.97, 25.99)		592 (85.7)	30.1 (29.51–30.60)		473 (92.2)	19.5 (19.07–19.90)
Stroke
Yes	48 (4.0)	24.3 (21.88, 26.68)	0.323	29 (4.2)	30.0 (27.44–32.37)	0.942	19 (3.7)	18.5 (16.38–20.54)	0.380
No	1156 (96.0)	25.5 (25.03, 26.01)		662 (95.8)	30.0 (29.48–30.51)		494 (96.3)	19.4 (19.00–19.81)
Cancer
Yes	25 (2.1)	21.1 (14.76, 24.40)	0.009	11 (1.6)	27.2 (23.14–31.16)	0.161	14 (2.7)	17.6 (15.15–19.97)	0.135
No	1179 (97.9)	25.6 (25.08, 26.05)		680 (95.4)	30.0 (29.53–30.55)		499 (97.3)	19.42 (19.02–19.83)
Depression
Yes	152 (12.6)	23.8 (22.50, 25.19)	0.011	81 (11.7)	29.0 (27.50–30.44)	0.147	71 (13.8)	18.4 (17.34–19.84)	0.058
No	1052 (57.4)	25.7 (25.19, 26.22)		610 (88.3)	30.1 (29.59–30.67)		442 (86.2)	19.5 (19.10–19.96)

Notes: ^aUnadjusted using univariate ANCOVA. ^bAdjusted for age as covariate using univariate ANCOVA.

Abbreviations: HGS, handgrip strength; kg, kilogram; 95% CI, 95% confidence interval;

Table 3 Factors Associated with Handgrip Strength (Kg) Among the Study Population

	Male				Female
Variables	Simple Linear Regression		Multiple Linear Regression^a		Simple Linear Regression		Multiple Linear Regression^b
	B ^c	(95% CI)	Adj. B ^d	(95% CI)	B ^c	(95% CI)	Adj. B ^d	(95% CI)
Age (year)	−0.565 *	(−0.651, −0.480)	−0.495*	(−0.588, −0.402)	−0.378 *	(−0.436, −0.321)	−0.320 *	(−0.384, −0.255)
Unmarried ^e	−3.187 *	(−4.968, −1.406)	−0.520	(−2.142, 1.102)	−2.082 *	(−3.018, −1.146)	−0.504	(−1.361, 0.352)
Primary education ^f	−2.253 *	(−3.383, −1.124)	1.643	(−1.048, 4.334)	−0.460	(−1.376, 0.457)	–	–
Secondary education ^f	1.675 ^#	(0.543, 2.808)	2.001	(−0.715, 4.716)	1.389 ^#	(0.359, 2.419)	−0.187	(−1.109, 0.736)
Tertiary education ^f	2.257 ^#	(0.612, 3.903)	2.650	(−0.345, 5.645)	1.672	(−0.639, 3.984)	–	–
Unemployed ^g	−2.260 ^#	(−3.697, −0.823)	−0.346	(−1.653, 0.960)	−2.180 ^#	(−3.861, −0.499)	−0.437	(−1.906, 1.031)
Lower income ^h	−1.847 ^#	(−3.580, −0.114)	1.249	(−2.804, 5.302)	−0.418	(−2.438, 1.601)	–	–
Middle income ^h	2.149 ^#	(0.305, 3.993)	2.131	(−2.094, 6.355)	0.213	(−1.842, 2.268)	–	–
Smoking history ^i	0.840	(−0.299, 1.980)	–	–	0.788	(−1.640, 3.217)	–	–
Physically inactive ^j	−4.158*	(−5.398, −2.918)	−2.896 *	(−4.032, −1.759)	−2.435 *	(−3.430, −1.441)	−1.802 *	(−2.691, −0.913)
BMI (kg/m^2)	0.143 ^#	(0.026, 0.261)	–	–	0.199 *	(0.114, 0.284)	0.155 *	(0.077, 0.233)
Hypertension ^k	−0.744	(−1.894, −0.406)	–	–	−1.456 ^#	(−2.442, −0.470)	−0.975 ^#	(−1.853, −0.097)
Diabetes ^l	−2.433 *	(−3.597, −1.269)	−2.197 *	(−3.260, −1.134)	−0.478	(−1.426, 0.469)	–	–
Depression ^m	−1.455	(−3.199, 0.289)	–	–		(−1.258, 0.067)	–	–

Notes: *P< 0.001, ^#P< 0.05. ^aR²=0.256; Constant=61.210; The model reasonable fits well; Model assumption are met; No interaction between the variables; No multicollinearity problem. ^bR²=0.290; Constant=39.197; The model reasonable fits well; Model assumption are met; No interaction between the variables; No multicollinearity problem. ^cCrude regression coefficient. ^dAdjusted regression coefficient. ^eMarried as reference. ^fNo school as a reference. ^gEmployed as a reference. ^hHigher income as a reference. ⁱNo smoking as a reference. ^jPhysically active as a reference. ^kNo hypertension as a reference. ^lNo diabetes as a reference. ^mNo depression as a reference.

Abbreviations: B, unstandardized coefficient; 95% CI, 95% confidence interval; Adj, adjusted; BMI, body mass index.