Racial Disparities in Medication Use During Pregnancy: Results from the NISAMI Cohort

Figures & data

Figure 1 Study flow diagram.

Table 1 Characteristics of the Study Population by Race. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (N = 1058)

	Asian (n = 39)		Black (n = 396)		Brazilian Indigenous (n = 21)		Brown (n = 500)		White (n = 102)		p value
	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%
Maternal age (years)											0.509^a
≤ 24	20	51.28	194	48.99	12	57.14	218	43.60	41	40.20
25 to 29	9	23.08	97	24.49	5	23.81	141	28.20	32	31.37
30 to 35	10	25.64	83	20.96	2	9.52	104	20.80	20	19.61
≥ 36	0	0.00	22	5.56	2	9.52	37	7.40	8	7.84
Missing	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	1	0.98
Education (years)											0.326^a
≤ 8	24	61.54	190	47.98	10	47.62	241	48.20	57	55.88
9 to 11	14	35.90	185	46.72	11	52.38	225	45.00	37	36.27
> 11	1	2.56	19	4.80	0	0.00	33	6.60	8	7.84
Missing	0	0.00	2	0.51	0	0.00	1	0.20	0	0.00
Marital status											0.421^b
Without a partner	9	23.08	59	14.90	4	19.05	93	18.60	15	14.71
With a partner	30	76.92	337	85.10	17	80.95	406	81.20	87	85.29
Missing	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	1	0.20	0	0.00
Employment status											0.339^a
Without employment	19	48.72	190	47.98	10	47.62	271	54.20	56	54.90
With employment	19	48.72	203	51.26	11	52.38	222	44.40	45	44.12
Missing	1	2.56	3	0.76	0	0.00	7	1.40	1	0.98
Family income											0.847^b
≤ 1 MW	9	23.08	90	22.73	4	19.05	114	22.80	18	17.65
> 1 MW	27	69.23	290	73.23	14	66.67	364	72.80	79	77.45
Missing	3	7.69	16	4.04	3	14.29	22	4.40	5	4.90
Smoking during pregnancy											0.096^b
No	3	7.69	17	4.29	1	4.76	11	2.20	5	4.90
Yes	36	92.31	374	94.44	19	90.48	483	96.60	95	93.14
Missing	0	0.00	5	1.26	1	4.76	6	1.20	2	1.96
Previous pregnancies											0.630^b
< 2	32	82.05	307	77.53	19	90.48	394	78.80	76	74.51
≥ 2	7	17.95	87	21.97	2	9.52	106	21.20	25	24.51
Missing	0	0.00	2	0.51	0	0.00	0	0.00	1	0.98
Onset of prenatal care											0.890^b
During the 1st trimester	30	76.92	307	77.53	18	85.71	398	79.60	81	79.41
After the 1st trimester	8	20.51	67	16.92	3	14.29	77	15.40	15	14.71
Missing	1	2.56	22	5.56	0	0.00	25	5.00	6	5.88
Prenatal consultations											0.196^a
≤ 3 consultations	19	48.72	238	60.10	10	47.62	316	63.20	64	62.75
> 3 consultations	20	51.28	147	37.12	11	52.38	175	35.00	36	35.29
Missing	0	0.00	11	2.78	0	0.00	9	1.80	2	1.96
History of miscarriage											0.457^b
No	28	71.79	255	64.39	10	47.62	330	66.00	66	64.71
Yes	8	20.51	89	22.47	7	33.33	105	21.00	17	16.67
Missing	3	7.69	52	13.13	4	19.05	65	13.00	19	18.63
Health problems											0.080^a
No	27	69.23	191	48.23	8	38.10	245	49.00	49	48.04
Yes	11	28.21	204	51.52	13	61.90	247	49.40	50	49.02
Missing	1	2.56	1	0.25	0	0.00	8	1.60	3	2.94

Notes: ^ap-value calculated by chi-square test; ^bp-value calculated by Fisher’s exact test.

Figure 2 Percentage of patients who used medication during pregnancy by race. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (n = 1058).

Table 2 Prevalence of the Use of at Least One Medication During Pregnancy According to Race According to the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC) Level. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (n = 892)

ATC levels	Pregnant Women
	Asian (n = 39)		Black (n = 396)		Brazilian Indigenous (n = 21)		Brown (n = 500)		White (n = 102)		p value
	N	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%
Blood and blood forming organs – B	31	79.49	275	69.44	19	90.48	359	71.80	70	68.63	0.190^a
Antianemic preparations – B03	30	76.92	274	69.19	19	90.48	359	71.80	70	68.63	0.231^a
Iron preparations – B03A	21	53.85	209	52.78	15	71.43	257	51.40	45	44.12	0.207^a
Vitamin B12 and folic acid – B03B	26	66.67	246	62.12	17	80.95	313	62.60	61	59.80	0.451^a
Alimentary tract and metabolism – A	16	41.03	100	25.25	7	33.33	121	24.20	33	32.35	0.084^a
Drugs for acid related disorders – A02	0	0.00	6	1.52	1	4.76	12	2.40	2	1.96	0.560^b
Antacids – A02A	0	0.00	4	1.01	1	4.76	10	2.00	1	0.98	0.397^b
Drugs for peptic ulcer and gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GORD) – A02B	0	0.00	2	0.51	0	0.00	2	0.40	1	0.98	0.642^b
Drugs for functional gastrointestinal disorders – A03	8	20.51	81	20.45	4	19.05	83	16.60	23	22.55	0.466^b
Belladonna and derivatives, plain – A03B	4	10.26	44	11.11	0	0.00	31	6.20	13	12.75	0.022^b
Antispasmodics in combination with analgesics – A03D	3	7.69	28	7.07	3	14.29	31	6.20	8	7.84	0.549^b
Antispasmodics and anticholinergics in combination with other drugs – A03E	1	2.56	19	4.80	0	0.00	20	4.00	1	0.98	0.459^b
Propulsives – A03F	0	0.00	4	1.01	1	4.76	3	0.60	2	1.96	0.205^b
Vitamins – A11	8	20.51	25	6.31	3	14.29	39	7.80	9	8.82	0.032^b
Multivitamins, combinations – A11A	7	17.95	23	5.81	2	9.52	31	6.20	8	7.84	0.075^b
Nervous system – N	10	25.64	86	21.72	6	28.57	110	22.00	19	18.63	0.790^b
Analgesics – N02	10	25.64	85	21.46	6	28.57	110	22.00	19	18.63	0.785^b
Other analgesics and antipyretics – N02B	10	25.64	85	21.46	6	28.57	110	22.00	19	18.63	0.785^b
Respiratory system – R	1	2.56	37	9.34	2	9.52	47	9.40	8	7.84	0.715^b
Antihistamines for systemic use – R06	1	2.56	34	8.59	2	9.52	46	9.20	8	7.84	0.742^b
Antihistamines for systemic use – R06A	1	2.56	34	8.59	2	9.52	46	9.20	8	7.84	0.742^b
Genito urinary system and sex hormones – G	2	5.13	16	4.04	0	0.00	24	4.80	2	1.96	0.699^b
Gynecological antiinfectives and antiseptics – G01	0	0.00	5	1.26	0	0.00	9	1.80	0	0.00	0.737^b
Antiinfectives and antiseptics, excl. combinations with corticosteroids – G01A	0	0.00	5	1.26	0	0.00	9	1.80	0	0.00	0.737^b
Sex hormones and modulators of the genital system – G03	2	5.13	11	2.78	0	0.00	15	3.00	2	1.96	0.823^b
Estrogens – G03D	1	2.56	11	2.78	0	0.00	14	2.80	2	1.96	1.000^b
Antiinfectives for systemic use – J	3	7.69	15	3.79	1	4.76	12	2.40	4	3.92	0.227^b
Antibacterials for systemic use – J01	3	7.69	14	3.54	1	4.76	12	2.40	3	2.94	0.266^b
Beta-lactam antibacterials, penicillins – J01C	1	2.56	8	2.02	0	0.00	5	1.00	2	1.96	0.483^b
Other beta-lactam antibacterials – J01D	1	2.56	6	1.52	0	0.00	7	1.40	2	1.96	0.798^b
Other antibacterials – J01X	1	2.56	0	0.00	1	4.76	3	0.60	0	0.00	0.021^b
Cardiovascular system – C	1	2.56	10	2.53	0	0.00	13	2.60	0	0.00	0.499^b
Antihypertensives - C02	1	2.56	10	2.53	0	0.00	10	2.00	0	0.00	0.483^b
Antiadrenergic agents, centrally acting – C02A	1	2.56	10	2.53	0	0.00	10	2.00	0	0.00	0.483^b
Agents acting on the renin-angiotensin system – C09	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	1	0.20	0	0.00	1.000^b
Musculo-skeletal system – M	1	2.56	9	2.27	0	0.00	9	1.80	3	2.94	0.781^b
Anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic products – M01	1	2.56	4	1.01	0	0.00	5	1.00	2	1.96	0.538^b
Anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic products, nonsteroids – M01A	1	2.56	4	1.01	0	0.00	5	1.00	2	1.96	0.538^b
Muscle relaxants – M03	0	0.00	5	1.26	0	0.00	4	0.80	1	0.98	0.850^b
Muscle relaxants, centrally acting agents – M03B	0	0.00	5	1.26	0	0.00	4	0.80	1	0.98	0.850^b
Other	1	2.56	1	0.25	0	0.00	6	1.20	2	1.96	0.144^b

Notes: ^ap-values were calculated by the chi-square test; ^bp-values were calculated by Fisher’s exact test.

Figure 3 Percentage of the top medication classes taken during pregnancy by race. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (n = 892).

Figure 4 Percentage of potentially risky medication use during pregnancy by race. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (n = 261).

Table 3 Crude Prevalence Ratio of Medication Use According to Race by Study Population Characteristics. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (n = 892)

	Asian (n = 38)				Black (n = 328)				Brazilian Indigenous (n = 20)				Brown (n = 423)				White (n = 83)
	n	%	PR	95% CI	n	%	PR	95% IC	n	%	PR	95% IC	n	%	PR	95% IC	n	%	PR	95% IC
Maternal age (years)
≤ 24	19	50.00	1.00	–	162	49.39	1.00	–	11	55.00	1.00	–	180	42.55	1.00	–	33	39.76	1.00	–
25 to 29	9	23.68	1.05	0.95–1.17	71	21.65	0.88	0.76–1.01	5	25.00	1.09	0.90–1.32	127	30.02	1.09	1.01–1.18	28	33.73	1.09	0.89–1.33
30 to 35	10	26.32	1.05	0.95–1.17	74	22.56	1.07	0.97–1.18	2	10.00	1.09	0.90–1.32	86	20.33	1.00	0.90–1.11	15	18.07	0.93	0.69–1.26
≥ 36	0	0.00	–	–	21	6.40	1.14	1.02–1.28	2	10.00	1.09	0.90–1.32	30	7.09	0.98	0.83–1.16	6	7.23	0.93	0.60–1.44
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	1	1.20	–	–
Education (years)
≤ 8	24	63.16	1.00	–	152	46.34	1.00	–	9	45.00	1.00	–	197	46.57	1.00	–	46	55.42	1.00	–
9 to 11	13	34.21	0.93	0.80–1.08	159	48.48	1.07	0.98–1.18	11	55.00	1.11	0.89–1.38	194	45.86	1.05	0.97–1.14	29	34.94	0.97	0.78–1.20
> 11	1	2.63	1.00	1.00–1.00	15	4.57	0.99	0.77–1.26	0	0.00	–	–	32	7.57	1.18	1.09–1.29	8	9.64	1.24	1.09–1.41
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	2	0.61	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Marital status
Without a partner	9	23.68	1.00	–	49	14.94	1.00	–	3	15.00	1.00	–	75	17.73	1.00	–	8	9.64	1.00	–
With a partner	29	76.32	0.97	0.90–1.03	279	85.06	1.00	0.88–1.13	17	85.00	1.33	0.73–2.42	347	82.03	1.06	0.95–1.18	75	90.36	1.62	0.99–2.63
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	1	0.24	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Employment status
Without employment	18	47.37	1.00	–	153	46.65	1.00	–	10	50.00	1.00	–	231	54.61	1.00	–	46	55.42	1.00	–
With employment	19	50.00	1.05	0.95–1.18	173	52.74	1.06	0.97–1.16	10	50.00	0.91	0.75–1.11	188	44.44	0.99	0.92–1.07	36	43.37	0.97	0.80–1.18
Missing	1	2.63	–	–	2	0.61	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	4	0.95	–	–	1	1.20	–	–
Family income
≤ 1 MW	8	21.05	1.00	–	72	21.95	1.00	–	3	15.00	1.00	–	97	22.93	1.00	–	14	16.87	1.00	–
> 1 MW	27	71.05	1.12	0.89–1.43	244	74.39	1.05	0.94–1.18	14	70.00	1.33	0.73–2.43	306	72.34	0.99	0.90–1.08	67	80.72	1.09	0.83–1.42
Missing	3	7.89	–	–	12	3.66	–	–	3	15.00	–	–	20	4.73	–	–	2	2.41	–	–
Smoking during pregnancy
No	35	92.11	1.00	–	309	94.21	1.00	–	18	90.00	1.00	–	407	96.22	1.00	–	78	93.98	1.00	–
Yes	3	7.89	1.03	0.97–1.09	14	4.27	1.00	0.80–1.25	1	5.00	1.06	0.94–1.18	11	2.60	1.19	1.14–1.23	4	4.82	0.97	0.62–1.53
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	5	1.52	–	–	1	5.00	–	–	5	1.18	–	–	1	1.20	–	–
Previous pregnancies
< 2	31	81.58	1.00	–	255	77.74	1.00	–	18	90.00	1.00	–	336	79.43	1.00	–	65	78.31	1.00	–
≥ 2	7	18.42	1.03	0.97–1.10	71	21.65	0.98	0.88–1.10	2	10.00	1.06	0.94–1.18	87	20.57	0.96	0.87–1.06	18	21.69	0.84	0.65–1.10
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	2	0.61	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Onset of prenatal care
During the 1st trimester	29	76.32	1.00	–	261	79.57	1.00	–	17	85.00	1.00	–	349	82.51	1.00	–	71	85.54	1.00	–
After the 1st trimester	8	21.05	1.03	0.97–1.11	54	16.46	0.95	0.83–1.08	3	15.00	1.06	0.94–1.19	58	13.71	0.86	0.75–0.98	10	12.05	0.76	0.52–1.10
Missing	1	2.63	–	–	13	3.96	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	16	3.78	–	–	2	2.41	–	–
Prenatal consultations
≤ 3 consultations	18	47.37	1.00	–	180	54.88	1.00	–	9	45.00	1.00	–	248	58.63	1.00	–	47	56.63	1.00	–
> 3 consultations	20	52.63	1.05	0.95–1.18	144	43.90	1.30	1.20–1.40	11	55.00	1.11	0.89–1.38	169	39.95	1.23	1.15–1.31	36	43.37	1.36	1.17–1.58
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	4	1.22	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	6	1.42	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
History of miscarriage
No	27	71.05	1.00	–	217	66.16	1.00	–	10	50.00	1.00	–	271	64.07	1.00	–	54	65.06	1.00	–
Yes	8	21.05	1.04	0.96–1.12	71	21.65	0.94	0.83–1.05	6	30.00	0.86	0.62–1.18	94	22.22	1.09	1.01–1.18	12	14.46	0.86	0.62–1.20
Missing	3	7.89	–	–	40	12.20	–	–	4	20.00	–	–	58	13.71	–	–	17	20.48	–	–
Health problems
No	26	68.42	1.00	–	147	44.82	1.00	–	7	35.00	1.00	–	199	47.04	1.00	–	37	44.58	1.00	–
Yes	11	28.95	1.04	0.96–1.12	181	55.18	1.15	1.05–1.26	13	65.00	1.14	0.87–1.50	217	51.30	1.08	1.01–1.17	44	53.01	1.17	0.96–1.41
Missing	1	2.63	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	7	1.65	–	–	2	2.41	–	–

Note: Values in bold indicate statistical significance.

Table 4 Factors Associated with Medication Use During Pregnancy According to Race in the Study Population. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014

	Black		Brown		White
	PR	95% CI	PR	95% IC	PR	95% IC
Medication use
Education (years)			1.00	–	1.00	–
≤ 8			1.03	0.94–1.12	0.93	0.76–1.13
9 to 11			1.16	1.05–1.29	1.18	1.01–1.38
> 11
Smoking during pregnancy
No			1.00	–
Yes			1.15	1.05–1.26
Prenatal consultations
≤ 3 consultations	1.00	–	1.00	–	1.00	–
> 3 consultations	1.27	1.18–1.37	1.23	1.15–1.32	1.36	1.17–1.58
History of miscarriage
No			1.00	–
Yes			1.09	1.01–1.19
Health problems
No	1.00	–
Yes	1.13	1.04–1.23
Residual deviance	103.81		116.15		28.65
Degrees-of-freedom	381		415		96
p	0.999		0.999		0.999

Notes: Values in bold indicate statistical significance.

Table 5 Crude Prevalence Ratio of Potentially Risky Medication Use During Pregnancy According to Race According to Study Population Characteristics. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014 (n = 261)

	Asian (n = 12)				Black (n = 102)				Brazilian Indigenous (n = 4)				Brown (n = 115)				White (n = 28)
	n	%	PR	95% CI	n	%	PR	95% IC	n	%	PR	95% IC	n	%	PR	95% IC	n	%	PR	95% IC
Maternal age (years)
≤ 24	7	58.33	1.00	–	39	38.24	1.00	–	1	25.00	1.00	–	34	29.57	1.00	–	9	32.14	1.00	–
25 to 29	2	16.67	0.60	0.15–2.48	26	25.49	1.52	1.01–2.30	1	25.00	2.20	0.12–38.60	40	34.78	1.67	1.12–2.48	12	42.86	1.57	0.76–3.23
30 to 35	3	25.00	0.81	0.25–2.60	31	30.39	1.74	1.18–2.56	1	25.00	5.50	0.41–74.14	28	24.35	1.72	1.12–2.65	3	10.71	0.73	0.22–2.40
≥ 36	0	0.00	–	–	6	5.88	1.19	0.57–2.47	1	25.00	5.50	0.41–74.14	13	11.30	2.29	1.38–3.83	3	10.71	1.83	0.67–4.98
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	1	3.57	–	–
Education (years)
≤ 8	3	25.00	1.00	–	47	46.08	1.00	–	2	50.00	1.00	–	50	43.48	1.00	–	17	60.71	1.00	–
9 to 11	9	75.00	5.54	0.80–1.08	50	49.02	1.02	0.73–1.42	2	50.00	0.82	0.13–5.18	56	48.70	1.14	0.82–1.58	10	35.71	0.93	0.49–1.77
> 11	0	0.00	–	–	5	4.90	1.08	0.50–2.30	0	0.00	–	–	9	7.83	1.11	0.60–2.03	1	3.57	0.34	0.05–2.28
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Marital status
Without a partner	5	41.67	1.00	–	15	14.71	1.00	–	1	25.00	1.00	–	16	13.91	1.00	–	2	7.14	1.00	–
With a partner	7	58.33	0.43	0.18–1.06	87	85.29	1.02	0.64–1.61	3	75.00	0.53	0.07–3.93	99	86.09	1.34	0.84–2.13	26	92.86	1.39	0.39–4.86
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Employment status
Without employment	6	50.00	1.00	–	46	45.10	1.00	–	1	25.00	1.00	–	54	46.96	1.00	–	14	50.00	1.00	–
With employment	6	50.00	0.95	0.36–2.46	56	54.90	1.08	0.78–1.49	3	75.00	3.00	0.33–27.06	60	52.17	1.37	1.00–1.87	13	46.43	1.19	0.64–2.21
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	1	0.87	–	–	1	3.57	–	–
Family income
≤ 1 MW	3	25.00	1.00	–	19	18.63	1.00	–	1	25.00	1.00	–	23	20.00	1.00	–	4	14.29	1.00	–
> 1 MW	8	66.67	0.79	0.26–2.37	79	77.45	1.23	0.80–1.88	3	75.00	0.64	0.09–4.80	89	77.39	1.23	0.82–1.83	24	85.71	1.25	0.51–3.08
Missing	1	8.33	–	–	4	3.92	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	3	2.61	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Smoking during pregnancy
No	10	83.33	1.00	–	95	93.14	1.00	–	4	100.00	1.00	–	108	93.91	1.00	–	27	96.43	1.00	–
Yes	2	16.67	2.33	0.87–6.23	5	4.90	1.16	0.56–2.40	0	0.00	–	–	6	5.22	2.06	1.17–3.61	0	0.00	–	–
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	2	1.96	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	1	0.87	–	–	1	3.57	–	–
Previous pregnancies
< 2	11	91.67	1.00	–	80	78.43	1.00	–	3	75.00	1.00	–	86	74.78	1.00	–	17	60.71	1.00	–
≥ 2	1	8.33	0.40	0.06–2.77	22	21.57	0.99	0.67–1.46	1	25.00	3.00	0.48–18.55	29	25.22	1.30	0.92–1.85	11	39.29	2.34	1.34–4.08
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
Onset of prenatal care
During the 1st trimester	11	91.67	1.00	–	85	83.33	1.00	–	4	100.00	1.00	–	97	84.35	1.00	–	24	85.71	1.00	–
After the 1st trimester	1	8.33	0.33	0.05–2.30	11	10.78	0.62	0.36–1.09	0	0.00	–	–	12	10.43	0.74	0.44–1.27	2	7.14	0.59	0.16–2.17
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	6	5.88	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	6	5.22	–	–	2	7.14	–	–
Prenatal consultations
≤ 3 consultations	7	58.33	1.00	–	62	60.78	1.00	–	1	25.00	1.00	–	74	64.35	1.00	–	14	50.00	1.00	–
> 3 consultations	5	41.67	0.64	0.24–1.71	38	37.25	0.77	0.54–1.08	3	75.00	2.45	0.27–22.10	39	33.91	0.77	0.55–1.08	14	50.00	1.31	0.71–2.40
Missing	0	0.00	–	–	2	1.96	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	2	1.74	–	–	0	0.00	–	–
History of miscarriage
No	9	75.00	1.00	–	66	64.71	1.00	–	2	50.00	1.00	–	73	63.48	1.00	–	16	57.14	1.00	–
Yes	2	16.67	0.75	0.19–2.90	25	24.51	1.16	0.79–1.68	1	25.00	0.83	0.08–8.54	28	24.35	1.11	0.77–1.60	6	21.43	1.69	0.83–2.43
Missing	1	8.33	–	–	11	10.78	–	–	1	25.00	–	–	14	12.17	–	–	6	21.43	–	–
Health problems^†
No	6	50.00	1.00	–	41	40.20	1.00	–	1	25.00	1.00	–	50	43.48	1.00	–	13	46.43	1.00	–
Yes	5	41.67	1.97	0.74–5.26	61	59.80	1.21	0.87–1.68	3	75.00	1.61	0.18–14.29	63	54.78	1.15	0.84–1.59	14	50.00	0.91	0.49–1.69
Missing	1	8.33	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	0	0.00	–	–	2	1.74	–	–	1	3.57	–	–

Note: Values in bold indicate statistical significance.

Table 6 Factors Associated with Potentially Risky Medication Use During Pregnancy According to Race in the Study Population. NISAMI Cohort Study, Brazil, 2012–2014

	Black		Brown		White
	PR	95% CI	PR	95% IC	PR	95% IC
Potentially risky medication use in pregnancy
Maternal age (years)
≤ 24	1.00	–	1.00	–
25 to 29	1.52	1.01–2.30	1.70	1.14–2.53
30 to 35	1.74	1.18–2.56	1.68	1.09–2.58
≥ 36	1.19	0.57–2.47	2.37	1.41–3.96
Smoking during pregnancy
No			1.00	–
Yes			2.27	1.34–3.84
Previous pregnancies
< 2					1.00	–
≥ 2					2.34	1.34–4.08
Residual deviance	232.29		284.40		56.43
Degrees-of-freedom	324		413		81
p	0.999		0.999		0.983

Notes: Values in bold indicate statistical significance.