Novel optical biosensor method to identify human blood types using free-space frequency-modulated wave of NIR photon technology

Figures & data

Figure 1 Conceptual measurement system.

Abbreviations: IL, insertion loss; IP, insertion phase; VCSEL, vertical cavity surface emitting laser; RF, radio frequency.

Figure 2 Transmission mode optical measurements through blood tubes.

Figure 3 Broadband transmission mode (through blood tubes) result of insertion loss (IL).

Figure 4 Broadband transmission mode (through blood tubes) result of insertion phase (IP).

Table 1 Transmission mode index result of IL and IP mapped to different blood types

	Antigens	Antibodies	RhD antigen	Averaged broadband absorption (IL) (dB)	Mean	σ	Averaged broadband scattering (IP) (°)	Mean	σ	Laboratory result
A RhD positive (A+)	A	Anti-B	Present	8–10	9.12	1.27	16–22	19.11	0.93	A+
A RhD negative (A−)	A	Anti-B	Absent	8–10	8.99	1.13	10–14	12.22	1.2	A−
B RhD positive (B+)	B	Anti-A	Present	11–13	12.11	1.66	17–23	19.83	1.06	B+
B RhD negative (B−)	B	Anti-A	Absent	11–13	11.88	1.64	11–15	12.88	0.93	B−
O RhD positive (O+)	None	Anti-A anti-B	Present	3–5	4.11	1.17	9–12	10.44	1.01	O+
O RhD negative (O−)	None	Anti-A anti-B	Absent	3–5	4.14	0.8	4–7	5.55	0.77	O−
AB RhD positive (AB+)	A and B	None	Present	15–19	16.88	0.78	41–45	43.11	1.05	AB+
AB RhD negative (AB−)	A and B	None	Absent	15–19	17	1.22	32–38	35.22	1.2	AB−

Abbreviations: IL, insertion loss; IP, insertion phase.

Figure 5 Reflection mode optical measurements through lower forearm hand.

Abbreviations: Rx, receiver; Tx, transmitter.

Figure 6 Signal processing procedure to identify the change in slope and frequency stamp associated with it.

Abbreviations: IL, insertion loss; IP, insertion phase.

Figure 7 Averaged insertion loss (IL) measurements for reflection mode lower forearm.

Figure 8 Averaged insertion phase (IP) measurements for reflection mode lower forearm.

Table 2 Peaked averaged result of ∆IL and ∆IP for reflection mode lower forearm

Patients’ blood type	Averaged narrow band derivative of absorption peak (IL)	Σ	Averaged narrow band derivative of scattering peak (IP) (°)	Σ
A+	8.8 dB	1.08	20.32	2.15
A−	8.5 dB	1.31	11.85	1.98
B+	12.02 dB	1.63	20.34	1.87
B−	12.05 dB	1.42	12.19	2.27
O+	3.73 dB	1.31	11.18	1.84
O−	3.72 dB	1.42	6.44	2.02
AB+	17.41 dB	1.49	44.03	2.98
AB−	17.38 B	1.29	33.87	2.74

Abbreviations: IL, insertion loss; IP, insertion phase.

Figure 9 Correlation analysis between stage 1 and stage 2 (index result for the noninvasive lower forearm measurements).

Abbreviation: IL, insertion loss.

Table 3 False-negative (FN) percentage error performed on 480 patients (60 patients from each blood type)

	FN error A+	FN error A−	FN error O+	FN error O−	FN error AB+	FN error AB−	FN error B+	FN error B−
Center	5	5	1.6	3.3	1.6	5	3.3	3.3
0.5 cm	8.3	6.6	5	6.6	5	8.3	6.6	8.3
1.0 cm	33.3	30	28.3	31.6	30	26.6	25	28.3
1.5 cm	66.6	65	65	68.3	61.6	60	71.6	68.3

Figure 10 False negatives (FNs) for 480 human subjects tested to predict human blood type using noninvasive optical device.

Figure 11 Optical biosensor past, present, and futuristic development for noninvasive blood typing.