Molecular biosensors: promising new tools for early detection of cancer

Figures & data

Table 1 Currently available diagnostic tools for cancer with their advantages and disadvantages

Diagnostic method	Advantage	Disadvantage	Reference
Biopsy	Fast and easy	Inflammation, painful, invasive	6,7
Sputum cytology	Easy and noninvasive	Degradation of biomarkers due to enzymes in sputum, false positive results	8,9
Chest X-ray	Quite reliable	Use of radiation, false negative response, high cost	10,11
Magnetic resonance imaging	Quite reliable	Use of magnetic field, high cost, not suitable for all patients that have other complications	12,13
Computed tomography	Quite reliable	High cost, false negative scans, use of radiation	14,15
Positron emission tomography	Quite reliable	Need for radioactive substance and sophisticated instrument, not suitable for all patients who have other complications, high cost	16,17

Figure 1 Techniques used for biomarker identification and detection.

Abbreviations: FISH, fluorescence in situ hybridization; IHC, immunohistochemistry.

Figure 2 All stages from discovery to clinical usage of cancer biomarkers.

Abbreviations: MS, mass spectroscopy; LC-MS, liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy; FDA, US Food and Drug Administration; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism.

Figure 3 Construction of a biosensor: from materials, to devices, to systems.

Note: Reprinted from Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2009;20. Tothill IE. Biosensors for cancer markers diagnosis, 55–62. Copyright © 2009 with permission from Elsevier.²⁵
Abbreviation: CNT, carbon nanotubes.

Table 2 Detection of cancer using biomarkers and biosensors

Biomarker	Sample	Biosensor	Surface ligand	Linear range	Detection limit	Reference
PSA	Serum	SPR	Antibody	–	2.3 ng/mL	48
P53 point mutation	–	SPR and QCM	ssDNA	0.03–2 μΜ	0.03 μΜ	49
P53 gene	–	SPR	dsDNA and antibody	–	10.6 pM and 1.06 pM	50
CEA	Serum	SPR	Antibody	–	–	51
PSA	20 times diluted serum	Electrochemical	Antibody	–	0.02 ng/mL	52
CEA	–	SPR	Antibody	3–400 ng/mL	3 ng/mL	5
EGFR	Serum	Optical	Aptamer	–	–	53
EGFR	Serum	Lab-on-a-chip	Antibody	3–8 ng/mL	–	54
CA15-3	Serum	Electrochemical	Antibody	1–100 U/mL	–	27
CEA	Serum	Electrochemical	Antibody	5 pg/mL to 1 ng/mL	–	27
K-ras point mutation	–	SPR	PNA	–	–	55
DNA mutations	Serum	SPR	ssDNA	–	50 nM	56
CA19-9	–	SPR	Antibody	–	66.7 U/mL	57
CA15-3	Serum	Electrochemical	Antibody	5–200 U/mL	10 U/mL	26

Abbreviations: CA, cancer antigen; CEA, carcinoembryonic antigen; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; PSA, prostate-specific antigen; SPR, surface plasmon resonance; ssDNA, single-stranded DNA; dsDNA, double-stranded DNA; QCM, quartz crystal microbalance; PNA, peptide nucleic acid.

Table 3 Diagnosis of cancer using molecular biosensors with the application of nanomaterials

Nanomaterial	Detection approach	Advantages	Reference
Magnetic particles	MPs are conjugated to lung cancer and CvD biomarkers for the quantification of trace amounts using antibody-immobilized capacitive sensor surfaces	Allows multiple marker detection which provides precise diagnosis. Detection of trace concentration of disease markers with high specificity and sensitivity	27
Magnetofluorescent particle systems	These bimodal contrast agents allow detection of cancer cells	Noninvasive detection of breast cancer	75
Dendrimers	Dendrimeric surface chemistries were developed to enhance the SPR-based sensor surfaces for detection of protein and genetic biomarkers	Improves the surface and sensor signal for biological molecules with a rapid, easy-to-use, and sensitive assay approach. Can be applied for both protein and genetic markers of diseases using SPR-based sensors	76
Gold nanoparticles	Selectivity and specific affinity of aptamers is combined with spectroscopic advantages of gold NPs to detect diseased cells	For sensitive detection of cancer cells. Can easily differentiate between different types of target and control cells based on the aptamer	77
Aptamer-conjugated NPs	Aptamer-conjugated magnetic NPs can be used for selective targeting cell extraction, and aptamer-conjugated fluorescent NPs can be used for sensitive cancer detection	Enables collection and detection of multiple cancer cells	78
Gold nanoparticles	Enhancement of sensor capacity using a gold NP-modified surface for multiple biomarker detection	Efficient for both CVD and lung cancer diagnosis. Enables multiple marker detection with high sensitivity. Successful also for real serum samples	26
Semiconductor fluorescent QDs	These fluorescent biomarkers are analyzed by their resulting fluorescence, enabling efficient cancer diagnostics	Enables fast and precise cancer diagnostics	79

Abbreviations: CVD, cardiovascular disease; NPs, nanoparticles; SPR, surface plasmon resonance; MPs, magnetic particles; QD, quantum dot.

Tothill IE. Biosensors for cancer markers diagnosis. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2009;20:55–62.

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