Pathogenic beliefs among patients with depressive disorders

Figures & data

Table 1 Participant characteristics

Variables	Depressive (n=30)	Control (n=30)	Test statistics	P-value
Age (years): mean (SD)	22.53 (2.19)	21.97 (1.07)	t=1.273	0.208
Gender: female, n (%)	15 (50.00)	15 (50.00)	χ^2=0.00, (df 1)	1.000a
Education (years): mean (SD)	15.23 (1.48)	15.47 (0.51)	t=1.130	0.265
Marital status: single/separated, n (%)	29 (97.67)	30 (100)	χ^2=1.017 (df 1)	1.000a
Clinical diagnosis (DSM-V)
Major depressive disorder	23 (76.60)	–	–	–
Other depressive disorder (eg, dysthymia, bipolar disorder, depressive)	14 (23.40)	–	–	–
Personality disorder, n (%)
None	2 (6.7)
Borderline	12 (40.0)	–	–	–
Avoidant	5 (16.7)	–	–	–
Narcissistic	1 (3.3)	–	–	–
Antisocial	1 (3.3)	–	–	–
Dependent	3 (9.9)	–	–	–
Histrionic	2 (6.6)	–	–	–
Obsessive-compulsive	3 (10.0)	–	–	–
Schizotypal	1 (3.3)
PBS score, mean (SD); (min–max)	13.17 (8.54); (0–30)	5.63 (6.27); (0–21)	t=3.78	<0.001

Note:

a Fisher’s exact test.

Abbreviations: DSM-V, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition; PBS, pathogenic belief scale; SD, standard deviation.

Table 2 Comparison of OR between healthy and depressed groups

Pathogenic belief item	Whole group (N=60)	Depressive disorder (N=30)	Control (N=30)	OR (95% CI)
I need to defer to others instead of pursuing my own ideas, needs or interests	21 (35.00)	15 (50.00)	6 (20.00)	4.00 (1.27, 12.58)*
I am a failure because I could not make parents or significant others happy	9 (15.00)	8 (26.67)	1 (3.33)	10.55 (1.23, 90.66)*
I am physically fragile, vulnerable and unhealthy	10 (16.67)	9 (30.00)	1 (3.33)	12.43 (1.46, 105.73)**
It is wrong, threatening or disloyal to surpass parents, siblings or significant others	2 (3.33)	1 (3.33)	1 (3.33)	1.00 (0.06, 16.76)
It is dangerous to experience or express angry feelings	17 (28.33)	11 (36.67)	6 (20.00)	2.32 (0.72, 7.41)
I am fundamentally unlovable	9 (15.00)	8 (26.67)	1 (3.33)	10.55 (1.23, 90.66)*
I cannot achieve my goals because I lack self-control over emotions and impulses	13 (21.67)	11 (36.67)	2 (6.67)	8.11 (1.61, 40.77)**
Others will hurt, abuse, humiliate, cheat or manipulate me	16 (26.67)	14 (46.67)	2 (6.67)	12.25 (2.46, 60.91)***
I should not/do not deserve to be happy because my family of origin was unhappy	3 (5.00)	2 (6.67)	1 (3.33)	2.07 (0.18, 24.15)
If I am relaxed and unworried, I will be punished or something terrible will happen	10 (16.67)	6 (20.00)	4 (13.33)	1.63 (0.41, 6.47)
I am extremely powerful (omnipotent) and can control how others feel or behave	5 (8.33)	4 (13.33)	1 (3.33)	4.46 (0.47, 42.51)
I must be perfect in order to feel good about myself	15 (25.00)	10 (33.33)	5 (16.67)	2.50 (0.74, 8.50)
I should be able to face extreme danger or difficult challenges without feeling fearful or anxious	5 (8.33)	1 (16.67)	4 (13.33)	0.172 (0.019, 1.58)
Loving someone means I need to be idealizing, admiring and subservient	4 (6.67)	3 (10.00)	1 (3.33)	3.22 (0.32, 32.89)
I deserve to be mistreated and therefore put myself in self-destructive or abusive situations/relationships	3 (5.00)	2 (66.67)	1 (33.33)	2.07 (0.18, 24.148)
The only way to feel dignified or competent is by minimizing or sabotaging other’s achievements	2 (3.33)	1 (3.33)	1 (3.33)	1.00 (0.06, 16.76)
Other’s needs are far more important than my own	11 (18.33)	8 (26.67)	3 (10.00)	3.27 (0.77, 13.83)
I should not recognize or be critical of a parent’s problems/limitations	18 (30.00)	8 (26.67)	10 (33.33)	0.73 (0.24, 2.21)
By constantly worrying, I can prevent bad things from happening	17 (28.33)	12 (40.00)	5 (16.67)	3.33 (0.99, 11.14)
Disagreeing with others will result in contemptuous, angry or rejecting reactions	24 (40.00)	15 (50.00)	9 (30.00)	2.33 (0.81, 6.73)
Expressing or experiencing an appropriate sense of pride means that I am self-aggrandizing or narcissistic	13 (21.67)	9 (30.00)	4 (13.33)	2.79 (0.75, 10.33)
I am different from other people, isolated from the rest of the world and/or not part of any group or community	12 (20.00)	11 (36.67)	1 (3.33)	16.79 (2.01, 140.89)**
I should emulate or identify with parents or other significant family members in order to avoid hurting them	7 (11.67)	3 (10.00)	4 (13.33)	0.72 (0.15, 3.55)
By pursuing my interests and goals, I am being selfish, uncaring or ignoring the needs of others	13 (21.67)	7 (23.33)	6 (20.00)	1.22 (0.36, 4.17)
I am weak, helpless and vulnerable to exploitation or trauma	16 (26.67)	13 (43.33)	3 (10.00)	6.88 (1.71, 27.75)**
Others are superior or more competent than I am	12 (20.00)	11 (36.67)	1 (8.33)	16.79 (2.00, 140.90)**
I should be harshly punished whenever I make mistakes	14 (23.33)	8 (26.67)	6 (20.00)	1.46 (0.44, 4.86)
I am superior to others, entitled to special privileges and not bound by ordinary social conventions	4 (6.67)	3 (10.00)	1 (3.33)	3.22 (0.32, 32.89)
My desire for emotional support and nurturance will not be met by others	5 (8.33)	4 (13.33)	1 (3.33)	4.46 (0.47, 42.51)
An imminent catastrophe will strike at any time and nothing can be done to prevent or avoid it	8 (13.33)	7 (23.33)	1 (3.33)	8.83 (1.01, 76.96)*
I must remain excessively involved with parents or loved ones because separating would be hurtful, disloyal or make them feel abandoned	21 (35.00)	10 (33.33)	11 (36.67)	0.86 (0.29, 2.49)
Others will be attentive or affectionate only when I am suffering or unhappy	9 (15.00)	7 (23.33)	2 (6.67)	4.26 (0.81, 22.53)
I do not deserve to be taken seriously	3 (5.00)	2 (6.67)	1 (3.33)	2.07 (0.18, 24.15)
I am responsible for the feelings or behaviors of others	16 (26.67)	11 (36.67)	5 (16.67)	2.89 (0.86, 9.75)
I will be rejected/abandoned, so I avoid close or intimate relationships	13 (21.67)	9 (30.00)	4 (13.33)	2.79 (0.75, 10.33)
Having a good relationship (eg, with one parent, child, sibling, friend) will hurt the other (parent, sibling, etc.)	5 (8.33)	4 (13.33)	1 (3.33)	4.46 (0.47, 42.51)
If I am not successful, I am worthless and life is meaningless	15 (25.00)	11 (36.67)	4 (13.33)	3.76 (1.04, 13.65)*
I am unable to handle everyday responsibilities in a competent manner without considerable help from others	7 (11.67)	6 (20.00)	1 (14.28)	7.25 (0.82, 64.46)
My feelings, needs or behaviors are overwhelming or alienating to others	14 (23.33)	9 (30.00)	5 (16.67)	2.14 (0.62, 7.39)
I do not deserve to be cared for and feel protected	4 (6.67)	3 (10.00)	1 (3.33)	3.22 (0.32, 32.89)
I cannot challenge, criticize, disagree with others or assert my own point of view because doing so could hurt or harm others	12 (20.00)	9 (30.00)	3 (10.00)	3.86 (0.93, 16.05)
I am not entitled to attention/affection/help and am therefore self-sacrificing or self-denigrating	7 (11.67)	6 (20.00)	1 (3.33)	7.25 (0.82, 64.46)
I am flawed because I could not live up to my family’s high expectations	15 (25.00)	13 (43.33)	2 (6.67)	10.71 (2.15, 53.35)**
Pursuing my goals or dreams is too risky because things might not work out	13 (21.67)	11 (36.67)	2 (6.67)	8.11 (1.61, 40.77)**
I should not ask for help because doing so means that I am weak/needy	11 (18.33)	6 (20.00)	5 (16.67)	1.25 (0.34, 4.64)
I must surrender control to others	8 (13.33)	5 (16.67)	3 (10.00)	1.80 (0.39, 8.32)
If I am too sexy, others will feel envious, put down or threatened	2 (3.33)	1 (3.33)	1 (3.33)	1.00 (0.06, 16.76)
I felt responsible to “save” a parent or a sibling and failed to do so	12 (20.00)	8 (26.67)	4 (13.33)	2.36 (0.63, 8.92)
Committing to a relationship means forever being trapped or stifled	11 (18.33)	8 (26.67)	3 (10.00)	3.27 (0.77, 13.83)
Gaining recognition or approval from other people is more important than developing a secure and true sense of self	12 (20.00)	7 (23.33)	5 (16.67)	1.52 (0.42, 5.47)
Because my parents were neglectful or inattentive, I deserve very little in life	5 (8.33)	4 (13.33)	1 (3.33)	4.46 (0.47, 42.51)
I should play down achievements or success in order to avoid diminishing, offending or emasculating others	12 (20.00)	3 (10)	9 (30)	0.26 (0.06, 1.08)
It is dangerous to express loving feelings	5 (8.33)	4 (13.33)	1 (3.33)	4.46 (0.47, 42.51)
Being burdened, overworked or a martyr is a mark of virtue	25 (41.67)	14 (46.67)	11 (36.67)	1.51 (0.54, 4.24)

Notes:

* P<0.05,

** P<0.01,

*** P=0.001.

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio.