Nothing to smile about

Figures & data

Table 1 Social and psychological characteristics of the sample

	DP (n=50)		Controls (n=40)		OR	95% CI	P-value
	N	%	N	%
Age (mean ± SD)	56.7±15.2		56.1±15.9		1	0.98–1.03	0.853
Sex
Women	35	70	24	60	1
Men	15	30	16	40	0.64	0.27–1.54	0.322
Depression
Absent	0	0	40	100
Mild depression	7	14	0	0
Moderate depression	19	38	0	0
Severe depression	24	48	0	0
Marital status
Married (reference)	29	58	23	46	1
Singles	8	16	14	28	0.45	0.16–1.26	0.131
Divorced/widowers	13	26	3	6	3.43	0.87–13.51	0.07
Tobacco
Non smokers (reference)	33	66	32	80	1
Mild smokers	8	16	6	15	1.29	0.4–4.14	0.665
Moderate/heavy smokers	9	18	2	5	4.36	0.87–21.77	0.07
Coffee
No consumption	16	32	7	17.5	1
Consumption of  <3 cups/day	28	56	25	62.5	0.49	0.17–1.38	0.17
Consumption of 3 or more cups/day	6	12	8	20	0.32	0.08–1.30	0.11
Alcohol
No consumption (reference)	40	80	29	72.5	1
Mild consumption	5	10	9	22.5	0.4	0.12–1.32	0.13
Moderate consumption	5	10	0	0	1.81	0.32–10	0.49
Diabetes	13	26	5	12.5	2.45	0.79–7.61	0.11
Cocaine	3	6	0	0	5.97	0.3–119	0.42
Anxiety	36	72	7	17.5	12.12	4.35–33.71	<0.001
Alexithymia
Absent (reference)	8	16	28	70	1
Borderline alexithymia	13	26	9	22.5	5.89	1.81–19.13	<0.001
Present	29	58	3	7.5	35.04	8.4–145.44	<0.001
Personality disorders
Absent (reference)	7	14	26	65	1
Obsessive-compulsive	12	24	3	7.5	14.85	3.26–67.63	<0.001
Others	31	62	11	27.5	10.46	3.54–30.57	<0.001
Suicidal ideation	12	24	0	0	0.96	0.41–2.24	0.93
Frequency of teeth-brushing
2 times/day or less (reference)	37	74	29	72.5	1
3 or more times/day	13	26	11	27.5	0.92	0.36–2.36	0.87
Type of toothbrush
Manual (reference)	49	98	37	92.5	1
Electric	1	2	3	7.5	0.25	0.02–2.51	0.24
Use of mouthwash	8	16	11	27.5	0.5	0.17–1.40	0.18
Flossing	2	4	5	12.5	0.29	0.05–1.59	0.15
Dentures	20	40	9	22.5	2.29	0.90–5.83	0.08
Edentulous	3	6	2	5	1.21	0.19–7.62	0.83
OHIP-14 (mean ± SD)	17.3±13.6		3.9±5.3		1.16	1.08–1.25	<0.001
PI
Excellent (reference)	5	10	19	47.5	1
Good	12	24	14	35	3.25	0.93–11.39	0.06
Fair	11	22	3	7.5	13.93	2.77–69.88	0.001
Poor	19	38	2	5	36.1	6.21–209.5	0.001
Not applicable	3	6	2	5	5.7	0.73–43.94	0.094
OHI-S
Good (reference)	15	30	15	37.5	1
Fair	10	20	18	45	0.55	0.19–1.59	0.27
Poor	22	44	5	12.5	4.4	1.31–14.7	0.01
Not applicable	3	6	2	5	1.5	0.21–10.30	0.68
GI
Excellent (reference)	15	30	19	47.5	1
Good	15	30	12	30	1.58	0.57–4.37	0.37
Fair/Poor	17	34	9	22.5	3.1	1.01–9.33	0.04
Not applicable	3	6	0	0	1.9	0.28–12.86	0.51
PeI
Excellent (reference)	15	30	19	47.5	1
Good	11	22	13	32.5	1.07	0.37–3.06	0.89
Fair/Poor	21	42	8	20	4.43	1.42–13.75	0.009
Not applicable	3	6	0	0	1.9	0.28–12.86	0.51

Note: Bold P-values are statistically significant.

Abbreviations: DP, patients with major depression; N, number; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; OHIP-14, oral health impact profile; PI, plaque index; GI, gingival index; OHI-S, simplified oral hygiene index; PeI, periodontal index; SD, standard deviation.

Table 2 Oral hygiene habits and periodontal parameters according to depression severity

	Mild depression (n=7)	Moderate depression (n=19)	Severe depression (n=24)	P-value
Frequency of teeth-brushing (n, %)
<2 times per day	5 (71.4%)	13 (68.4%)	19 (79.2%)	ns
3 or more times per day	2 (28.6%)	6 (31.6%)	5 (20.8%)	ns
Type of toothbrush (n, %)
Manual toothbrush	7 (100%)	19 (100%)	23 (95.8%)	ns
Electric toothbrush	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	1 (4.2%)	ns
Use of mouthwash (n, %)	1 (14.3%)	3 (15.8%)	4 (16.7%)	ns
Flossing (n, %)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	2 (8.3%)	ns
Dentures (n, %)	2 (28.6%)	6 (31.6%)	12 (50%)	ns
Edentulous (n, %)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	3 (12.5%)	ns
OHIP-14 (mean ± SD)	15.1±13.6	15.6±14	18.8±13.7	ns
PI (n, %)
Excellent	4 (57.1%)*	0 (0%)	1 (4.2%)*	<0.05
Good	1 (14.3%)*	10 (52.6%)*	1 (4.2%)*	<0.05
Fair	1 (14.3%)	3 (15.8%)	7 (29.2%)	ns
Poor	1 (14.3%)	6 (31.6%)	12 (50%)	ns
Not applicable	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	3 (12.5%)	ns
GI (n, %)
Excellent	6 (85.7%)*	4 (21.1%)*	5 (20.8%)*	<0.05
Good	0 (0%)	8 (42.1%)	7 (29.2%)	ns
Fair	1 (14.3%)	5 (26.3%)	6 (25%)	ns
Poor	0 (0%)	2 (10.5%)	3 (12.5%)	ns
Not applicable	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	3 (12.5%)	ns
OHI-S (n, %)
Good	6 (85.7%)*	5 (26.3%)*	4 (16.7%)*	<0.05
Fair	0 (0%)	7 (36.8%)	3 (12.5%)	ns
Poor	1 (14.3%)	7 (36.8%)	14 (58.3%)	ns
Not applicable	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	3 (12.5%)	ns
PeI (n, %)
Excellent	6 (85.7%)*	3 (15.8%)*	6 (25%)*	<0.05
Good	0 (0%)	10 (52.6%)*	1 (4.2%)*	<0.05
Fair	1 (14.3%)	4 (21.1%)	12 (50%)	ns
Poor	0 (0%)	2 (10.5%)	2 (8.3%)	ns
Very poor	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	–
Not applicable	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	3 (12.5%)	ns

Notes:

* Represents which variable is significant versus another with P<0.05. Bold P-values are statistically significant.

Abbreviations: OHIP-14, oral health impact profile; PI, plaque index; GI, gingival index; OHI-S, simplified oral hygiene index; PeI, periodontal index; ns, not significant; SD, standard deviation.

Table 3 Oral hygiene habits, periodontal parameters, and alexithymia in DP

	Absence of alexithymia (n=8)	Borderline alexithymia (n=13)	Presence of alexithymia (n=29)	P-value
Frequency of teeth-brushing (n, %)
<2 times per day	6 (75%)	12 (92.3%)	19 (65.5%)	ns
3 or more times per day	2 (25%)	1 (7.7%)	10 (34.5%)	ns
Type of toothbrush (n, %)
Manual toothbrush	8 (100%)	12 (92.3%)	29 (100%)	ns
Electric toothbrush	0 (0%)	1 (7.7%)	0 (0%)	ns
Use of mouthwash (n, %)	1 (12.5%)	2 (15.4%)	5 (17.2%)	ns
Flossing (n, %)	1 (12.5%)	0 (100%)	1 (3.4%)	ns
Dentures (n, %)	3 (37.5%)	5 (38.5%)	12 (41.4%)	ns
Edentulous (n, %)	1 (12.5%)	1 (7.7%)	1 (3.4%)	ns
OHIP-14 (mean ± SD)	15.2±6.5	15.5±11.3	18.3±16	ns
PI (n, %)
Excellent	1 (12.5%)	3 (23.1%)	1 (3.4%)	ns
Good	4 (50%)	2 (15.4%)	6 (20.7%)	ns
Fair	1 (12.5%)	5 (38.5%)	5 (17.2%)	ns
Poor	1 (12.5%)*	2 (15.4%)*	16 (55.2%)*	<0.05
Not applicable	1 (12.5%)	1 (7.7%)	1 (3.4%)	ns
GI (n, %)
Excellent	4 (50%)	6 (46.2%)	5 (17.2%)	ns
Good	3 (37.5%)	2 (15.4%)	10 (34.5%)	ns
Fair	0 (0%)	3 (23.1%)	9 (31%)	ns
Poor	0 (0%)	1 (7.7%)	4 (13.8%)	ns
Not applicable	1 (12.5%)	1 (7.7%)	1 (3.4%)	ns
OHI-S (n, %)
Good	4 (50%)	6 (46.1%)	5 (17.3%)	ns
Fair	2 (25%)	2 (15.4%)	6 (20.7%)	ns
Poor	1 (12.5%)	4 (30.8%)	17 (58.6%)	ns
Not applicable	1 (12.5%)	1 (7.7%)	1 (3.4%)	ns
PeI (n, %)
Excellent	3 (37.5%)	7 (53.8%)*	5 (17.2%)*	<0.05
Good	3 (37.5%)	3 (23.1%)	5 (17.2%)	ns
Fair	1 (12.5%)	1 (7.7%)*	15 (51.7%)*	<0.05
Poor	0 (0%)	1 (7.7%)	3 (10.3%)	ns
Very poor (n, %)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	–
Not applicable	1 (12.5%)	1 (7.7%)	1 (3.4%)	ns

Notes:

* Represents which variable is significant versus another with P<0.05. Bold P-values are statistically significant.

Abbreviations: DP, patients with major depression; OHIP-14, oral health impact profile; PI, plaque index; GI, gingival index; OHI-S, simplified oral hygiene index; PeI, periodontal index; ns, not significant; SD, standard deviation.