Catha edulis chewing effects on treatment of paranoid schizophrenic patients

Figures & data

Table 1 One-way ANOVA analysis showing correlation between groups and within groups

		Sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	P-value*
Dopamine	Between groups	21,635.444	5	4,327.089	333.284	0.000
	Within groups	947.772	73	12.983
	Total	22,583.215	78
DOPAC	Between groups	26.917	5	5.383	31.271	0.000
	Within groups	12.567	73	0.172
	Total	39.484	78
HVA	Between groups	1,060.951	5	212.190	245.353	0.000
	Within groups	63.133	73	0.865
	Total	1,124.084	78
Serotonin	Between groups	140,676.456	5	28,135.291	245.065	0.000
	Within groups	8,380.961	73	114.808
	Total	149,057.418	78
HIAA	Between groups	21,429.771	5	4,285.954	91.032	0.000
	Within groups	3,436.963	73	47.082
	Total	24,866.734	78
Epinephrine	Between groups	1,879.219	5	375.844	18.000	0.000
	Within groups	1,524.224	73	20.880
	Total	3,403.443	78
Norepinephrine	Between groups	24,655,933.049	5	4,931,186.610	1,061.419	0.000
	Within groups	339,146.419	73	4,645.841
	Total	24,995,079.468	78

Note:

* The mean difference is significant at the P<0.05 level.

Abbreviations: ANOVA, analysis of variance; Sig, significance; DOPAC, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; HVA, homovanillic acid; HIAA, hydroxyindoleacetic acid.

Table 2 Multivariate tests

	Value	F	Hypothesis df	Error df	P-value	Partial eta squared
Pillai’s trace	2.566	10.696	35.000	355.000	0.000	0.513
Wilks’ lambda	0.001	39.703	35.000	284.273	0.000	0.775
Hotelling trace	116.720	218.100	35.000	327.000	0.000	0.959
Roy’s largest root	110.248	1,118.228	7.000	71.000	0.000	0.991

Notes: Each F tests the multivariate effect of subject. These tests are based on the linearly independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal means.

Abbreviation: Sig, significance.

Figure 1 Effects of khat chewing and paranoid schizophrenia on plasma level of dopamine (A) and its related metabolites, DOPAC (B) and HVA (C).

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM. *For comparison between khat-chewers and non-chewers between groups and within groups, ^▼for comparison between SNKch or SNKcr and HNKc, and ^⋄for comparison between SKch or SKcr and HKc. Note that mostly rest of all other comparisons were significant. ^*,▼P<0.05; **P<0.01; ^{***,▼▼▼,⋄⋄⋄}P<0.001.
Abbreviations: H, healthy; N, non; K, khat; c, chewing; S, schizophrenic; h, haloperidol; r, risperidone; DOPAC, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; HVA, homovanillic acid; SE, standard error; SEM, standard error of the mean.

Table 3 Effects of khat chewing and paranoid schizophrenia on plasma levels of dopamine and its related metabolites (DOPAC and HVA), in comparison with healthy non-khat-chewer subjects

Variables	Healthy subjects (n=37)		Schizophrenic subjects (n=42)
	HNKc (n=20)	HKc (n=17)	SNKc (n=21)		SKc (n=21)
			SNKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SNKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)	SKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)
Dopamine (pg/mL)	24.30±0.63	50.5±1.24***	23.2±1.11	19.82±0.48▼	61.3±1.25***,⋄⋄⋄	57.0±0.93***,⋄⋄⋄
DOPAC (ng/mL)	3.0±0.10	2.46±0.15**	2.03±0.05▼▼▼	2.97±0.07	1.48±0.05*,⋄⋄⋄	1.65±0.08***,⋄⋄⋄
HVA (ng/mL)	9.29±0.17	12.56±0.31***	10.05±0.39	9.72±0.10	19.25±0.23***,⋄⋄⋄	17.3±0.19***,⋄⋄⋄

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM.

* For comparison between khat-chewers and non-chewers between groups and within groups,

▼ for comparison between SNKch or SNKcr and HNKc, and

⋄ for comparison between SKch or SKcr and HKc. Note that mostly rest of all other comparisons were significant.

*,▼ P<0.05;

** P<0.01;

***,▼▼▼,⋄⋄⋄ P<0.001.

Abbreviations: S, schizophrenic; K, khat; c, chewing; N, non; r, risperidone; h, haloperidol; DOPAC, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; HVA, homovanillic acid; SEM, standard error of the mean.

Table 4 Effects of khat chewing and paranoid schizophrenia on plasma levels of serotonin (5-HT) and its metabolite (HIAA), in comparison with healthy non-khat-chewer subjects

Variables	Healthy subjects (n=37)		Schizophrenic subjects (n=42)
	HNKc (n=20)	HKc (n=17)	SNKc (n=21)		SKc (n=21)
			SNKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SNKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)	SKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)
Serotonin (5-HT) (ng/mL)	199.40±2.78	262.18±2.05***	221.3±1.89▼▼▼	206.36±3.16	309.5±5.03***,⋄⋄⋄	297.6±2.27***,⋄⋄⋄
5-HIAA (nmol/L)	58.10±1.18	85.41±1.62***	64.3±4.19	59.09±1.42	99.6±1.8***,⋄⋄⋄	93.82±0.93***,⋄

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM.

* For comparison between khat-chewers and non-chewers between groups and within groups,

▼ for comparison between SNKch or SNKcr and HNKc, and ⋄for comparison between SKch or SKcr and HKc. Note that mostly rest of all other comparisons were significant.

⋄ P<0.05;

***,▼▼▼,⋄⋄⋄ P<0.001.

Abbreviations: 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine; HIAA, hydroxyindoleacetic acid; S, schizophrenic; K, khat; c, chewing; N, non; r, risperidone; h, haloperidol; SEM, standard error of the mean.

Table 5 Effects of khat chewing and paranoid schizophrenia on plasma levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine, in comparison with healthy non-khat-chewer subjects

Variables	Healthy subjects (n=37)		Schizophrenic subjects (n=42)
	HNKc (n=20)	HKc (n=17)	SNKc (n=21)		SKc (n=21)
			SNKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SNKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)	SKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)
Norepinephrine (pg/mL)	863.70±7.28	1,902.88±26.31***	906.5±6.5	889.45±2.96	2,092.5±34.4***,⋄⋄⋄	2,041.45±13.3***,⋄⋄⋄
Epinephrine (pg/mL)	108.95±1.42	115.12±1.23**	111.3±1.07	102.72±1.13▼▼	119.5±0.72**	113.45±0.64***

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM.

* For comparison between khat-chewers and non-chewers between groups and within groups,

▼ for comparison between SNKch or SNKcr and HNKc, and

⋄ for comparison between SKch or SKcr and HKc. Note that mostly rest of all other comparisons were significant.

**,▼▼ P<0.01;

***,⋄⋄⋄ P<0.001.

Abbreviations: S, schizophrenic; K, khat; c, chewing; N, non; r, risperidone; h, haloperidol; SEM, standard error of the mean.

Figure 2 Effects of khat chewing and paranoid schizophrenia on plasma level of serotonin (A) and its related metabolite HIAA (B).

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM. *For comparison between khat-chewers and non-chewers between groups and within groups, ^▼for comparison between SNKch or SNKcr and HNKc, and ^⋄for comparison between SKch or SKcr and HKc. Note that mostly rest of all other comparisons were significant. ^⋄P<0.05; ^{***,▼▼▼,⋄⋄⋄}P<0.001.
Abbreviations: H, healthy; N, non; K, khat; c, chewing; S, schizophrenic; h, haloperidol; r, risperidone; HIAA, hydroxyindoleacetic acid; SE, standard error; SEM, standard error of the mean.

Figure 3 Effects of Khat chewing and paranoid schizophrenia on plasma level of norepinephrine (A), and epinephrine (B).

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM. *For comparison between khat-chewers and non-chewers between groups and within groups, ^▼for comparison between SNKch or SNKcr and HNKc, and ^⋄for comparison between SKch or SKcr and HKc. Note that mostly rest of all other comparisons were significant. ^**,▼▼P<0.01; ^{***,⋄⋄⋄}P<0.001.
Abbreviations: H, healthy; N, non; K, khat; c, chewing; S, schizophrenic; h, haloperidol; r, risperidone; SE, standard error; SEM, standard error of the mean.

Table 6 Positive, negative syndrome, and general psychopathology scales of patients with paranoid schizophrenia receiving haloperidol or risperidone across 12-week study period

Variables	Schizophrenic subjects (n=42)
	SNKc (n=21)						SKc (n=21)
	SNKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)			SNKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)			SKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)			SKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)
	Baseline	Week 6	Week 12	Baseline	Week 6	Week 12	Baseline	Week 6	Week 12	Baseline	Week 6	Week 12
Positive (P) (M ± SEM)	27±0.39	25±0.39	24±0.39	28±0.42	25±0.23**	23±0.44**	27.6±0.47	26.7±0.3	26±0.29	29.6±0.33	27.7±0.4	27.2±0.35
Negative (N) (M ± SEM)	29.5±0.34	27.2±0.29**	24.9±0.99**	29±0.43	27±0.44**	24±0.44**	29.9±0.37	28.9±0.48	29.1±0.43	31.18±0.44	30.9±0.31	29.6±0.41
General psychopathology (G) (M ± SEM)	60.3±0.36	55.8±0.38**	51.8±0.38**	60.9±0.43	56±0.35**	50.8±0.32**	61.5±0.37	60.2±0.44**	58±0.42**	59.7±0.42	57±0.31**	54.9±0.25**

Notes: Each value represents as mean ± SEM.

* For comparison between subjects within each group at 6 weeks or 12 weeks of treatment and baseline.

** P<0.05.

Abbreviations: S, schizophrenic; K, khat; c, chewing; N, non; r, risperidone; h, haloperidol; SEM, standard error of the mean; M, mean.

Table 7 Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics

Variables	Healthy subjects (n=37)		Schizophrenic subjects (n=42)
	HNKc (n=20)	HKc (n=17)	SNKc (n=21)		SKc (n=21)
			SNKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SNKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)	SKch (10 mg/day) (n=10)	SKcr (5 mg/day) (n=11)
Age (years)	38.4±92	36.64±1.0	39.9±1.4	40.18±0.6	42.1±0.56	43.09±0.6
Onset of disease (paranoid schizophrenia with depression) (years)	0.0±0.0	0.0±0.0	1.5±0.16	2.09±0.25	3.5±0.30	3.36±0.33
Previous readmission to hospital (times)	0.0±0.0	0.0±0.0	1.6±0.16	1.54±0.15	2.5±0.16	2.54±0.15
Family history of mental illness	No family history of mental and psychiatric illness for all subjects involved in the current study
Sex	All subjects involved in the current study were males

Note: Each value represents as mean ± SEM.

Abbreviations: S, schizophrenic; K, khat; c, chewing; N, non; r, risperidone; h, haloperidol; SEM, standard error of the mean.